IMPACT OF DOMESTIC COOKING (BOILING) ON PHENOLIC CONTENTS AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY IN VARIOUS LENTIL CULTIVARS
Keywords:
lentil; phenolic compounds; antioxidant activity; cultivar; raw; cooking (boiling)
Abstract
Lentils (Lens culinaris Medik) are among the most widely consumed foods in the world; however, they are mainly cooked by boiling, which causes the loss of antioxidant compounds. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of boiling on the phenolic content—specifically total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and total proanthocyanidin content (TPAC)—as well as antioxidant activity, including total antioxidant activity (TAA), DPPH radical scavenging activity (DPPH-RSA), and ferric reducing power (FRP) in various lentil cultivars. Six commercially available lentil samples (black, brown, green, dehulled red, white, and dehulled yellow) were analyzed. TPC, TFC, and TPAC were measured using Folin-Ciocalteu, AlCl₃·6H₂O, and butanol–HCl spectrophotometric methods, respectively, alongside antioxidant activity assessments (TAA, DPPH assay, and FRP) before and after cooking. The results revealed that whole lentils contained higher levels of TPC, TFC, and TPAC, as well as greater antioxidant activities (TAA, DPPH-RSA, and FRP) compared to dehulled lentils. Furthermore, whole lentils with dark seed coats (green and black) exhibited superior values for TPC, TFC, TPAC, TAA, DPPH-RSA, and FRP compared to varieties with lighter-colored skins (brown and white). These findings indicate that the presence and color of the seed coat significantly influence the phenolic content of lentil seeds. Boiling lentils for 30 minutes resulted in a substantial decrease in TPC, TFC, TPAC, and antioxidant activity (TAA, DPPH-RSA, and FRP). In addition to their nutritional benefits, lentils can serve as excellent sources of antioxidants and may be utilized as functional ingredients in the production of nutraceuticals and health foods within the food industry
References
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Aguilera, Y., I. Estrella, et al. (2011). "Bioactive phenolic compounds and functional properties of dehydrated bean flours." Food Research International 44(3): 774-780.
Amarowicz, R. and R. B. Pegg (2023). "Lentils (Lens culinaris Medik) as a source of phenolic compounds-their content, changes during processing, antioxidant and biological activities." Current Pharmaceutical Design 29(11): 852-864.
Amin, I., Y. Norazaidah, et al. (2006). "Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of raw and blanched Amaranthus species." Food chemistry 94(1): 47-52.
Attou, A., K. Bouderoua, et al. (2020). "Effects of roasting process on nutritional and antinutritional factors of two lentils varieties (Lens culinaris. Medik) cultivated in Algeria." South Asian Journal of Experimental Biology 10(6).
Barroga, C. F., A. C. Laurena, et al. (1985). "Polyphenols in mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek): determination and removal." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 33(5): 1006-1009.
Blois, M. S. (1958). "Antioxidant determinations by the use of a stable free radical." Nature 181(4617): 1199-1200.
Bubelova, Z., D. Sumczynski, et al. (2018). "Effect of cooking and germination on antioxidant activity, total polyphenols and flavonoids, fiber content, and digestibility of lentils (Lens culinaris L.)." Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 42(1): e13388.
Cheynier, V. (2005). "Polyphenols in foods are more complex than often thought." The American journal of clinical nutrition 81(1): 223S-229S.
Chuwech, M., N. Rakariyatham, et al. (2023). "Effect of heat–moisture treatment on crystallinity, digestibility properties, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant activity of purple rice (Oryza sativa L. indica) Flour." Processes 11(3): 969.
Deng, Y., O. Padilla-Zakour, et al. (2015). "Influences of high hydrostatic pressure, microwave heating, and boiling on chemical compositions, antinutritional factors, fatty acids, in vitro protein digestibility, and microstructure of buckwheat." Food and Bioprocess Technology 8: 2235-2245.
Dewan, M. F., S. N. U. Shams, et al. (2024). "Impact of Processing on the Bioactive Compounds and Antinutritional Factors of Lentil (Lens culinaris L.)—A Review." Legume Science 6(3): e253.
Dhull, S. B., J. Kinabo, et al. (2023). "Nutrient profile and effect of processing methods on the composition and functional properties of lentils (Lens culinaris Medik): A review." Legume Science 5(1): e156.
Djabali, S., F. Makhlouf, et al. (2020). "Effect of heat treatment on polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of lentils ()." Acta Scientifica Naturalis 7(3): 58-71.
Duenas, M., T. Hernandez, et al. (2006). "Assessment of in vitro antioxidant capacity of the seed coat and the cotyledon of legumes in relation to their phenolic contents." Food Chemistry 98(1): 95-103.
Dueñas, M., T. Hernández, et al. (2002). "Phenolic composition of the cotyledon and the seed coat of lentils (Lens culinaris L.)." European Food Research and Technology 215(6): 478-483.
Duenas, M., T. Sarmento, et al. (2016). "Impact of cooking and germination on phenolic composition and dietary fibre fractions in dark beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and lentils (Lens culinaris L.)." LWT-Food Science and Technology 66: 72-78.
Dueñas, M., B. Sun, et al. (2003). "Proanthocyanidin composition in the seed coat of lentils (Lens culinaris L.)." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 51(27): 7999-8004.
Fratianni, F., F. Cardinale, et al. (2014). "Polyphenol composition and antioxidant activity of different grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), lentils (Lens culinaris), and chickpea (Cicer arietinum) ecotypes of the Campania region (Southern Italy)." Journal of functional foods 7: 551-557.
Ganesan, K. and B. Xu (2017). "Polyphenol-rich lentils and their health promoting effects." International journal of molecular sciences 18(11): 2390.
Garrido, I., M. Monagas, et al. (2008). "Polyphenols and antioxidant properties of almond skins: influence of industrial processing." Journal of Food Science 73(2): C106-C115.
Hagerman, A. (2000). "Quantification of tannins in tree foliage: a laboratory manual for the FAO/IAEA co-ordinated research project on" The use of nuclear and related techniques to develop simple tannin assays for predicting and improving the safety and efficiency of feeding ruminants on tanninferous tree foliage." http://www. iaea. org/programmes/nafa/d3/crp/pubd31022manual-tannin. pdf.
Hefnawy, T. (2011). "Effect of processing methods on nutritional composition and anti-nutritional factors in lentils (Lens culinaris)." Annals of Agricultural Sciences 56(2): 57-61.
Jin, A. L., J. A. Ozga, et al. (2012). "Characterization of proanthocyanidins in pea (Pisum sativum L.), lentil (Lens culinaris L.), and faba bean (Vicia faba L.) seeds." Food Research International 46(2): 528-535.
Kaale, L., M. Siddiq, et al. (2023). Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) as nutrient-rich and versatile food legume: A review. Legume Science, 5 (2), e169.
Khattab, R. and S. Arntfield (2009). "Nutritional quality of legume seeds as affected by some physical treatments 2. Antinutritional factors." LWT-Food Science and Technology 42(6): 1113-1118.
Lin, P.-Y. and H.-M. Lai (2006). "Bioactive compounds in legumes and their germinated products." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 54(11): 3807-3814.
Mustafa, A. M., D. Abouelenein, et al. (2022). "Polyphenols, saponins and phytosterols in lentils and their health benefits: an overview." Pharmaceuticals 15(10): 1225.
Oduro‐Yeboah, C., R. Sulaiman, et al. (2023). "A review of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) value chain: Postharvest handling, processing, and processed products." Legume Science 5(2): e171.
Oomah, B. D., F. Caspar, et al. (2011). "Phenolics and antioxidant activity of lentil and pea hulls." Food Research International 44(1): 436-441.
Oyaizu, M. (1986). "Studies on products of browning reaction antioxidative activities of products of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine." The Japanese journal of nutrition and dietetics 44(6): 307-315.
Pal, R., A. Bhartiya, et al. (2017). "Effect of dehulling, germination and cooking on nutrients, anti-nutrients, fatty acid composition and antioxidant properties in lentil (Lens culinaris)." Journal of food science and technology 54: 909-920.
Prieto, P., M. Pineda, et al. (1999). "Spectrophotometric quantitation of antioxidant capacity through the formation of a phosphomolybdenum complex: specific application to the determination of vitamin E." Analytical biochemistry 269(2): 337-341.
Quettier-Deleu, C., B. Gressier, et al. (2000). "Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) hulls and flour." Journal of ethnopharmacology 72(1-2): 35-42.
Randhir, R., Y.-I. Kwon, et al. (2008). "Effect of thermal processing on phenolics, antioxidant activity and health-relevant functionality of select grain sprouts and seedlings." Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 9(3): 355-364.
Rocha-Guzmán, N. E., R. F. González-Laredo, et al. (2007). "Effect of pressure cooking on the antioxidant activity of extracts from three common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars." Food Chemistry 100(1): 31-35.
Singleton, V. L. and J. A. Rossi (1965). "Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid reagents." American journal of Enology and Viticulture 16(3): 144-158.
Wang, N., D. Hatcher, et al. (2010). "Effect of cooking on the composition of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)." Food Research International 43(2): 589-594.
Xu, B. and S. K. Chang (2009). "Total phenolic, phenolic acid, anthocyanin, flavan-3-ol, and flavonol profiles and antioxidant properties of pinto and black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) as affected by thermal processing." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 57(11): 4754-4764.
Xu, B. and S. K. Chang (2010). "Phenolic substance characterization and chemical and cell-based antioxidant activities of 11 lentils grown in the Northern United States." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 58(3): 1509-1517.
Xu, B., S. Yuan, et al. (2007). "Comparative analyses of phenolic composition, antioxidant capacity, and color of cool season legumes and other selected food legumes." Journal of food science 72(2): S167-S177.
Xu, B. J. and S. Chang (2007). "A comparative study on phenolic profiles and antioxidant activities of legumes as affected by extraction solvents." Journal of food science 72(2): S159-S166.
Yeo, J. and F. Shahidi (2017). "Effect of hydrothermal processing on changes of insoluble-bound phenolics of lentils." Journal of Functional Foods 38: 716-722.
Yu, J., M. Ahmedna, et al. (2006). "Peanut skin procyanidins: Composition and antioxidant activities as affected by processing." Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19(4): 364-371.
Zhang, B., Z. Deng, et al. (2015). "Phenolic profiles of 20 Canadian lentil cultivars and their contribution to antioxidant activity and inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase and pancreatic lipase." Food Chemistry 172: 862-872.
Zhang, B., Z. Deng, et al. (2014). "Effect of domestic cooking on carotenoids, tocopherols, fatty acids, phenolics, and antioxidant activities of lentils (Lens culinaris)." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 62(52): 12585-12594.
Zhou, J., M. Li, et al. (2024). "Effects of different processing methods on pulses phytochemicals: An overview." Food Reviews International 40(4): 1138-1195.
Aguilera, Y., M. Dueñas, et al. (2010). "Evaluation of phenolic profile and antioxidant properties of Pardina lentil as affected by industrial dehydration." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 58(18): 10101-10108.
Aguilera, Y., I. Estrella, et al. (2011). "Bioactive phenolic compounds and functional properties of dehydrated bean flours." Food Research International 44(3): 774-780.
Amarowicz, R. and R. B. Pegg (2023). "Lentils (Lens culinaris Medik) as a source of phenolic compounds-their content, changes during processing, antioxidant and biological activities." Current Pharmaceutical Design 29(11): 852-864.
Amin, I., Y. Norazaidah, et al. (2006). "Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of raw and blanched Amaranthus species." Food chemistry 94(1): 47-52.
Attou, A., K. Bouderoua, et al. (2020). "Effects of roasting process on nutritional and antinutritional factors of two lentils varieties (Lens culinaris. Medik) cultivated in Algeria." South Asian Journal of Experimental Biology 10(6).
Barroga, C. F., A. C. Laurena, et al. (1985). "Polyphenols in mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek): determination and removal." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 33(5): 1006-1009.
Blois, M. S. (1958). "Antioxidant determinations by the use of a stable free radical." Nature 181(4617): 1199-1200.
Bubelova, Z., D. Sumczynski, et al. (2018). "Effect of cooking and germination on antioxidant activity, total polyphenols and flavonoids, fiber content, and digestibility of lentils (Lens culinaris L.)." Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 42(1): e13388.
Cheynier, V. (2005). "Polyphenols in foods are more complex than often thought." The American journal of clinical nutrition 81(1): 223S-229S.
Chuwech, M., N. Rakariyatham, et al. (2023). "Effect of heat–moisture treatment on crystallinity, digestibility properties, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant activity of purple rice (Oryza sativa L. indica) Flour." Processes 11(3): 969.
Deng, Y., O. Padilla-Zakour, et al. (2015). "Influences of high hydrostatic pressure, microwave heating, and boiling on chemical compositions, antinutritional factors, fatty acids, in vitro protein digestibility, and microstructure of buckwheat." Food and Bioprocess Technology 8: 2235-2245.
Dewan, M. F., S. N. U. Shams, et al. (2024). "Impact of Processing on the Bioactive Compounds and Antinutritional Factors of Lentil (Lens culinaris L.)—A Review." Legume Science 6(3): e253.
Dhull, S. B., J. Kinabo, et al. (2023). "Nutrient profile and effect of processing methods on the composition and functional properties of lentils (Lens culinaris Medik): A review." Legume Science 5(1): e156.
Djabali, S., F. Makhlouf, et al. (2020). "Effect of heat treatment on polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of lentils ()." Acta Scientifica Naturalis 7(3): 58-71.
Duenas, M., T. Hernandez, et al. (2006). "Assessment of in vitro antioxidant capacity of the seed coat and the cotyledon of legumes in relation to their phenolic contents." Food Chemistry 98(1): 95-103.
Dueñas, M., T. Hernández, et al. (2002). "Phenolic composition of the cotyledon and the seed coat of lentils (Lens culinaris L.)." European Food Research and Technology 215(6): 478-483.
Duenas, M., T. Sarmento, et al. (2016). "Impact of cooking and germination on phenolic composition and dietary fibre fractions in dark beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and lentils (Lens culinaris L.)." LWT-Food Science and Technology 66: 72-78.
Dueñas, M., B. Sun, et al. (2003). "Proanthocyanidin composition in the seed coat of lentils (Lens culinaris L.)." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 51(27): 7999-8004.
Fratianni, F., F. Cardinale, et al. (2014). "Polyphenol composition and antioxidant activity of different grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), lentils (Lens culinaris), and chickpea (Cicer arietinum) ecotypes of the Campania region (Southern Italy)." Journal of functional foods 7: 551-557.
Ganesan, K. and B. Xu (2017). "Polyphenol-rich lentils and their health promoting effects." International journal of molecular sciences 18(11): 2390.
Garrido, I., M. Monagas, et al. (2008). "Polyphenols and antioxidant properties of almond skins: influence of industrial processing." Journal of Food Science 73(2): C106-C115.
Hagerman, A. (2000). "Quantification of tannins in tree foliage: a laboratory manual for the FAO/IAEA co-ordinated research project on" The use of nuclear and related techniques to develop simple tannin assays for predicting and improving the safety and efficiency of feeding ruminants on tanninferous tree foliage." http://www. iaea. org/programmes/nafa/d3/crp/pubd31022manual-tannin. pdf.
Hefnawy, T. (2011). "Effect of processing methods on nutritional composition and anti-nutritional factors in lentils (Lens culinaris)." Annals of Agricultural Sciences 56(2): 57-61.
Jin, A. L., J. A. Ozga, et al. (2012). "Characterization of proanthocyanidins in pea (Pisum sativum L.), lentil (Lens culinaris L.), and faba bean (Vicia faba L.) seeds." Food Research International 46(2): 528-535.
Kaale, L., M. Siddiq, et al. (2023). Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) as nutrient-rich and versatile food legume: A review. Legume Science, 5 (2), e169.
Khattab, R. and S. Arntfield (2009). "Nutritional quality of legume seeds as affected by some physical treatments 2. Antinutritional factors." LWT-Food Science and Technology 42(6): 1113-1118.
Lin, P.-Y. and H.-M. Lai (2006). "Bioactive compounds in legumes and their germinated products." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 54(11): 3807-3814.
Mustafa, A. M., D. Abouelenein, et al. (2022). "Polyphenols, saponins and phytosterols in lentils and their health benefits: an overview." Pharmaceuticals 15(10): 1225.
Oduro‐Yeboah, C., R. Sulaiman, et al. (2023). "A review of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) value chain: Postharvest handling, processing, and processed products." Legume Science 5(2): e171.
Oomah, B. D., F. Caspar, et al. (2011). "Phenolics and antioxidant activity of lentil and pea hulls." Food Research International 44(1): 436-441.
Oyaizu, M. (1986). "Studies on products of browning reaction antioxidative activities of products of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine." The Japanese journal of nutrition and dietetics 44(6): 307-315.
Pal, R., A. Bhartiya, et al. (2017). "Effect of dehulling, germination and cooking on nutrients, anti-nutrients, fatty acid composition and antioxidant properties in lentil (Lens culinaris)." Journal of food science and technology 54: 909-920.
Prieto, P., M. Pineda, et al. (1999). "Spectrophotometric quantitation of antioxidant capacity through the formation of a phosphomolybdenum complex: specific application to the determination of vitamin E." Analytical biochemistry 269(2): 337-341.
Quettier-Deleu, C., B. Gressier, et al. (2000). "Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) hulls and flour." Journal of ethnopharmacology 72(1-2): 35-42.
Randhir, R., Y.-I. Kwon, et al. (2008). "Effect of thermal processing on phenolics, antioxidant activity and health-relevant functionality of select grain sprouts and seedlings." Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 9(3): 355-364.
Rocha-Guzmán, N. E., R. F. González-Laredo, et al. (2007). "Effect of pressure cooking on the antioxidant activity of extracts from three common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars." Food Chemistry 100(1): 31-35.
Singleton, V. L. and J. A. Rossi (1965). "Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid reagents." American journal of Enology and Viticulture 16(3): 144-158.
Wang, N., D. Hatcher, et al. (2010). "Effect of cooking on the composition of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)." Food Research International 43(2): 589-594.
Xu, B. and S. K. Chang (2009). "Total phenolic, phenolic acid, anthocyanin, flavan-3-ol, and flavonol profiles and antioxidant properties of pinto and black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) as affected by thermal processing." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 57(11): 4754-4764.
Xu, B. and S. K. Chang (2010). "Phenolic substance characterization and chemical and cell-based antioxidant activities of 11 lentils grown in the Northern United States." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 58(3): 1509-1517.
Xu, B., S. Yuan, et al. (2007). "Comparative analyses of phenolic composition, antioxidant capacity, and color of cool season legumes and other selected food legumes." Journal of food science 72(2): S167-S177.
Xu, B. J. and S. Chang (2007). "A comparative study on phenolic profiles and antioxidant activities of legumes as affected by extraction solvents." Journal of food science 72(2): S159-S166.
Yeo, J. and F. Shahidi (2017). "Effect of hydrothermal processing on changes of insoluble-bound phenolics of lentils." Journal of Functional Foods 38: 716-722.
Yu, J., M. Ahmedna, et al. (2006). "Peanut skin procyanidins: Composition and antioxidant activities as affected by processing." Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19(4): 364-371.
Zhang, B., Z. Deng, et al. (2015). "Phenolic profiles of 20 Canadian lentil cultivars and their contribution to antioxidant activity and inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase and pancreatic lipase." Food Chemistry 172: 862-872.
Zhang, B., Z. Deng, et al. (2014). "Effect of domestic cooking on carotenoids, tocopherols, fatty acids, phenolics, and antioxidant activities of lentils (Lens culinaris)." Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 62(52): 12585-12594.
Zhou, J., M. Li, et al. (2024). "Effects of different processing methods on pulses phytochemicals: An overview." Food Reviews International 40(4): 1138-1195.
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