VALIDATION OF STRENGTH AND FLEXIBILITY OF SENGON (PARASERIANTHES FALCATARIA) BY EXPERIMENTAL TREE-PULLING TEST AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION
Abstract
Stability assessment of trees is considered important in urban areas to detect possible occurrence of tree failures that often result in disastrous damages. Tree-pulling test is a low-cost, well-known method that has been practiced by researchers and practitioners alike from several decades ago. From the method, a number of parameters related to the physical characteristics of the tree can be further derived. However, the tree-pulling test has only been widely practiced mostly for tree species in subtropical region, such as pines, spruces, and birches. In this paper, a tree-pulling test on sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria), a tree native to Indonesia is reported. Such a study is imperative as sengon is among the most commonly planted tree species in the urban areas of Indonesia and there have been alarming reports of falling sengon trees. Two kinds of tree-pulling test are conducted. i.e. destructive and non-destructive. From these experiments, the critical force that results in a breakage as well as the flexibility of sengon are obtained. Numerical simulations are also carried out. The results are compared and they show a good fit to the experimental data, justifying the assumed linearly elastic behavior.
References
Deflorio, G., Fink, S., &Schwarze, F. W. (2008). Detection of incipient decay in tree stems with sonic tomography after wounding and fungal inoculation. Wood Science and Technology, 42(2), 117-132.
Li, L., Wang, X., Wang, L., & Allison, R. B. (2012). Acoustic tomography in relation to 2D ultrasonic velocity and hardness mappings. Wood science and technology, 46(1-3), 551-561.
Arciniegas, A., Brancheriau, L., &Lasaygues, P. (2015). Tomography in standing trees: revisiting the determination of acoustic wave velocity. Annals of forest science, 72(6), 685-691.
Brancheriau, L., Lasaygues, P., Debieu, E., & Lefebvre, J. P. (2008). Ultrasonic tomography of green wood using a non-parametric imaging algorithm with reflected waves. Annals of Forest Science, 65(7), 1.
MAIA, O. D. A., Schneider, F. K., Maia, J. M., Neves, L. C., & PENTEADO, S. (2014). Wood characterization using the power spectral density and phase velocity of ultrasonic signals. In EmbrapaFlorestas-Artigoemanais de congresso (ALICE). In: INTERNATIONAL ULTRASONICS SYMPOSIUM, 2014, Chicago. Proceedings.[Sl]: IEEE, 2014..
Sani, L., Lisci, R., Moschi, M., Sarri, D., Rimediotti, M., Vieri, M., &Tofanelli, S. (2012). Preliminary experiments and verification of controlled pulling tests for tree stability assessments in Mediterranean urban areas. Biosystems engineering, 112(3), 218-226.
Milne, R., & Blackburn, P. (1989). The elasticity and vertical distribution of stress within stems of Piceasitchensis. Tree Physiology, 5(2), 195-205.
Peltola, H., Kellomäki, S., Hassinen, A., &Granander, M. (2000). Mechanical stability of Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch: an analysis of tree-pulling experiments in Finland. Forest Ecology and Management, 135(1-3), 143-153.
Neild, S. A., & Wood, C. J. (1999). Estimating stem and root-anchorage flexibility in trees. Tree physiology, 19(3), 141-151.
Gardiner, B., Peltola, H., &Kellomäki, S. (2000). Comparison of two models for predicting the critical wind speeds required to damage coniferous trees. Ecological modelling, 129(1), 1-23.
Tanaka, N., Takenaka, H., Yagisawa, J., & Morinaga, T. (2011). Estimation of drag coefficient of a real tree considering the vertical stand structure of trunk, branches, and leaves. International journal of river basin management, 9(3-4), 221-230.
Dupuy, L. X., Fourcaud, T., Lac, P., & Stokes, A. (2007). A generic 3D finite element model of tree anchorage integrating soil mechanics and real root system architecture. American Journal of Botany, 94(9), 1506-1514.
Rahardjo, H., Harnas, F. R., Leong, E. C., Tan, P. Y., Fong, Y. K., & Sim, E. K. (2009). Tree stability in an improved soil to withstand wind loading. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 8(4), 237-247.
Yang, M., Défossez, P., Danjon, F., &Fourcaud, T. (2014). Tree stability under wind: simulating uprooting with root breakage using a finite element method. Annals of botany, 114(4), 695-709.
Dhelika, R., Nirbito, W., Karis, A. (2019). Simulation studies of the effect of cavity on the natural frequency of an Enterolobiumcyclocarpum tree. Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 14(15): 5084-5090.
Fredericksen, T. S., Hedden, R. L., & Williams, S. A. (1993). Testing loblolly pine wind firmness with simulated wind stress. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 23(9), 1760-1765.
Papesch, A. J. G., Moore, J. R., & Hawke, A. E. (1997). Mechanical stability of Pinus radiata trees at Eyrewell Forest investigated using static tests. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 27(2), 188-204.
Cucchi, V., Meredieu, C., Stokes, A., Berthier, S., Bert, D., Najar, M., ... &Lastennet, R. (2004). Root anchorage of inner and edge trees in stands of Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) growing in different podzolic soil conditions. Trees, 18(4), 460-466.
Lundström, T., Jonas, T., Stöckli, V., & Ammann, W. (2007). Anchorage of mature conifers: resistive turning moment, root–soil plate geometry and root growth orientation. Tree physiology, 27(9), 1217-1227.
Coutts, M. P. (1986). Components of tree stability in Sitka spruce on peaty gley soil. Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research, 59(2), 173-197.
Smith, V. G., Watts, M., & James, D. F. (1987). Mechanical stability of black spruce in the clay belt region of northern Ontario. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 17(9), 1080-1091.
Ow, L. F., Harnas, F. R., Indrawan, I. G. B., Sahadewa, A., Sim, E. K., Rahardjo, H., ... & Tan, P. Y. (2010). Tree-pulling experiment: an analysis into the mechanical stability of rain trees. Trees, 24(6), 1007-1015.
Rahardjo, H., Harnas, F. R., Indrawan, I. G. B., Leong, E. C., Tan, P. Y., Fong, Y. K., & Ow, L. F. (2014). Understanding the stability of Samaneasaman trees through tree pulling, analytical calculations and numerical models. Urban forestry & urban greening, 13(2), 355-364.
Ow, L. F., &Mohd. Yusof, M. L. (2018). Stability of four urban trees species in engineered and regular urban soil blends. Journal of Urban Ecology, 4(1), juy014.
Rahardjo, H., Amalia, N., Choon, L. E., Harnas, F. R., Tieng, L. T., & King, F. Y. (2017). Flux boundary measurements for the study of tree stability. Landscape and ecological engineering, 13(1), 81-92.
Crook, M. J., Ennos, A. R., & Banks, J. R. (1997). The function of buttress roots: a comparative study of the anchorage systems of buttressed (Aglaia and Nepheliumramboutan species) and non-buttressed (Mallotuswrayi) tropical trees. Journal of Experimental Botany, 48(9), 1703-1716.
Buba, T. (2013). Relationships between stem diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height, crown length, and crown ratio of Vitellaria paradoxa CF Gaertn in the Nigerian Guinea Savanna. African Journal of Biotechnology, 12(22).
Ghani, M. A., Stokes, A., &Fourcaud, T. (2009). The effect of root architecture and root loss through trenching on the anchorage of tropical urban trees (Eugenia grandis Wight). Trees, 23(2), 197-209.
Krisnawati, H., Varis, E., Kallio, M. H., &Kanninen, M. (2011). Paraserianthesfalcataria (L.) Nielsen: ecology, silviculture and productivity. CIFOR.
Kurinobu, S., Prehatin, D., Mohanmad, N., &Matsune, K. (2007). A stem taper equation compatible to volume equation for Paraserianthesfalcataria in Pare, East Java, Indonesia: its implications for the plantation management. Journal of forest research, 12(6), 473-478.
Marsoem, S. N., &Pujiwinarko, A. (2005). Comparison for the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Sengon (Paraserianthesfalcataria (L) Nielsen) Wood of Seed Trees and Off-shoot Trees. The Proceeding of International Seminar on Plantation Forest Research and Development, 19(3).
