TraveLux: An Interaction-based Brand Relationship Scale for the Luxury Travelers
Keywords:
luxury, traveler, brand, relationship, scale
Abstract
Luxury consumption is on the rise over the last two decades. This brings challenge for the luxury brand marketers to sustain with the aspirational quotient of the luxury consumers. The inherent perception associated with the luxury consumption, namely narrow-band of consumers having ability to pay premium price, has given way to mass luxury consumption, thereby diminishing the price sensitivity of the segment. This luxury paradox calls for a fresh look into the equations that influence and control the relationship between the consumers and luxury brands. This study aims to develop a brand relationship instrument, namely, TraveLux, with specific reference to the travel, tourism and hospitality industry. The cross-sectional study was conducted in three major tourism destinations of India, namely, Rajasthan, Kerala and Goa. The initial scale items for the instrument were obtained by collating past studies and conducting a focus group exercise. The instrument was empirically tested to identify the relationship factors. Findings revealed that the TraveLux Brand Relationship can be mounted on four factors (dimensions), namely, immersive experience, ethno-cultural acculturation, passion & excitement and self congruence. The validated scale was further tested for possible deviations with new group of respondents. The measurement invariance did not reveal significant difference between the baseline model and the tested model. TraveLux will provide a framework for the luxury-travel brand marketers to develop specific brand designs and brand communications based on the identified relationship factors. Future research may be conducted to expand the scope of the instrument to embed behavioural and attitudinal issues of the travelers.
References
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Bengtsson, A., Bardhi, F. & Venkatraman, M. (2010). How global brands travel with consumers: an examination of the relationship between brand consistency and meaning across national boundaries. International Marketing Review, 27(5), 519-540.
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Berrozpe, A., Campo, S. & Yagüe, M. J. (2017). Understanding the identity of Ibiza, Spain. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 34(8), 1033–1046.
Beverland, M. (2004). Uncovering theories-in-use: building luxury wine brands. European Journal of Marketing, 38(3/4), 446-466.
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Bijmolt, T. H. A., Leeflang, P. S. H., Block, F., Eisenbeiss, M., Hardie, B. G. S., Lemmens, A., & Saffert, P. (2010). Analytics for customer engagement. Journal of Service Research, 13, 341-356
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Chun, H., Diehl, K. & MacInnis, D. (2017). Savoring an upcoming experience affects ongoing and remembered consumption enjoyment. Journal of Marketing, 81(3),96-110
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Ekinci, Y., Yoon, T. H. & Oppewal, H. (2005). An Examination of the Brand Relationship Quality Scale in the Evaluation of Restaurant Brands. Advances in Hospitality and Leisure, 1, 189-198.
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Fog, K., Budtz, C., Munch, P. & Blanchette, S. (2010). Storytelling: Branding in practice (2nd ed.). Copenhagen, Denmark: Springer.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(February), 39–50.
Fournier, S. (1998). Consumers and their brands: Developing relationship theory in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 2(4), 343–373.
Fung So, K. K., King, C. & Sparks, B. (2012). Customer Engagement With Tourism Brands: Scale Development and Validation. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research. 20(10), 10.1177/1096348012451456.
Han, S. H., Nguyen, B. & Lee, T. J. (2015). Consumer-based chain restaurant brand equity, brand reputation, and brand trust. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 50, 84–93.
Heine, K. & Phan, M. (2011). Trading-up mass-market goods to luxury products. Australasian Marketing Journal, 19(2), 108–114.
Holt, D.B., Quelch, J.A. & Taylor, E.L. (2004). How global brands compete. Harvard Business
Review, 82(9), 68-75.
Hollebeek, L. D. (2009). November-December). Demystifying customer engagement: Toward the development of a conceptual model. Paper presented at the ANZMAC 2009 conference, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
Hong, J. W. & Zinkhan, G. M. (1995). Self-concept and advertising effectiveness: The influence of congruency, conspicuousness, and response mode. Psychology & Marketing, 12(1), 53–77. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.4220120105
Huang, Z. J. & Cai, L. A. (2015). Modeling consumer-based brand equity for multinational hotel brands–when hosts become guests. Tourism Management, 46(2), 431–443.
Joreskog, K. G. & Sorbom, D. (1996a). LISREL 8: User’s reference guide. Chicago: Scientific Software International.
Joy, A., Sherry Jr., J., Venkatesh, A., Wang, J. & Chan, R. (2012). Fast Fashion, Sustainability, and the Ethical Appeal of Luxury Brands. Fashion Theory, September.
Kapferer, J. N. (2014). The artification of luxury: From artisans to artists. Business Horizons, 57(3), 371–380.
Kapferer, J.-N. & Laurent, G. (2016). Where do consumers think luxury begins? A study of perceived minimum price for 21 luxury goods in 7 countries. Journal of Business Research, 69(1), 332–340.
Kapferer, J.N. (2006). The two business cultures of luxury brands in Schroeder, J. & Salzer-Mörling, M. (Eds), Brand Culture, Taylor and Francis, London, 67-76.
Kastanakis, M. N. & Balabanis, G. (2012). Between the mass and the class: Antecedents of the “bandwagon” luxury consumption behavior. Journal of Business Research, 65(10), 1399–1407.
Kaufman, H. R., Loureiro, S. M. C. & Manarioti, A. (2016). Exploring Behavioural branding, brand love and brand co-creation. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 25(6), 516–526.
Kim, A. J. & Ko, E. (2012). Do social media marketing activities enhance customer equity? An empirical study of luxury fashion brand. Journal of Business Research, 65, 1480–1486.
Koronaki, E., Kyrousi, A. G. & Panigyrakis, G. G. (2017). The emotional value of arts-based initiatives: Strengthening the luxury brand–consumer relationship. Journal of Business Research, 85, 406-413
Lee, E. J. (2013). A prototype of multicomponent brand personality structure: A consumption symbolism approach. Psychology & Marketing, 30(2), 173-186.
Liao, J. & Wang, L. (2009). Face as a mediator of the relationship between material value and brand consciousness. Psychology & Marketing, 26(11), 987–1001.
Liu, M. T., Wong, I.A., Tseng, T. & Chang, A. W. (2017). Applying consumer-based brand equity in luxury hotel branding. Journal of Business Research, 81, 192-202
Lu, A. C. C., Gursoy, D. & Lu, C. Y. (2015). Authenticity perceptions, brand equity and brand choice intention: The case of ethnic restaurants. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 50, 36–45.
MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M. & Rich, GA. (2009). Transformational and transactional leadership and salesperson performance. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 29(2), 115–134.
Macey, W. H. & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 3-30.
Merz, M. A., Zarantonello, L. & Grappi, S. (2018). How valuable are your customers in the brand value co-creation process? The development of a customer co-creation value (CCCV) scale. Journal of Business Research, 82(January), 79–89.
Nobre, H. & Simoes, C. (2019). NewLux Brand Relationship Scale: Capturing the scope of mass-consumed luxury brand relationships. Journal of Business Research, 102, 328-338.
Nobre, H. (2015). The new-luxury brand relationship scale: Measuring relationships with mass-consumed luxury brands (working paper) Portugal: University of Aveiro.
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Patterson, P., Yu, T. & de Ruyter, K. (2006, December 4-6). Understanding customer engagement in services. Paper presented at the ANZMAC 2006: Advancing theory, maintaining relevance, Brisbane, Queensland.
Payne, A., Storbacka, K., Frow, P. & Knox, S. (2009). Co-creating brands: Diagnosing and designing the brand experience relationship. Journal of Business Research, 69(3), 379–789.
Prahalad, C. K. & Ramaswamy, V. (2004). Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(3), 4–9.
Roper, S., Caruana, R., Medway, D. & Murphy, P. (2013). Constructing luxury brands: exploring the role of consumer discourse. European Journal of Marketing, 47(3/4), 375-400.
Schroeder, J. E. (2009). The cultural codes of branding. Marketing Theory, 9(1), 123-126.
Schroeder, J. E. (2005). The artist and the brand. European Journal of Marketing, 39, 1291-1305.
Seo, Y. & Buchanan-Oliver, M. (2015). Luxury branding: the industry, trends, and future conceptualisations. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 27(1), 82-98.
Sirgy, M. J. (1982). Self-concept in consumer behavior: A critical review. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(3), 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1086/208924.
Sung, Y., Choi, S. M., Ahn, H. & Song, Y. A. (2015). Dimensions of luxury brand personality: Scale development and validation. Psychology & Marketing, 32(1), 121-132.
Torelli, C., Keh, H. T. & Chiu, C. Y. (2010). Cultural symbolism of brands. Brands and Brand Management: Contemporary Research Perspectives. 113-132.
Townsend, C. & Sood, S. (2012). Self-affirmation through the choice of highly aesthetic products. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(2), 415-428.
Tynan, C., McKechnie, S. & Chhuon, C. (2010). Co-creating value for luxury brands. Journal of Business Research, 63(11), 1156–1163.
Vargo, S. L. & Lusch, R. F. (2004). Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing. Journal of Marketing, 68(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.68.1.1.24036.
Vickers, J. S. & Renand, F. (2003). The marketing of luxury goods: An exploratory study – Three conceptual dimensions. The Marketing Review, 3, 459–478.
Wilcox, K., Kim, H. M. & Sen, S. (2009). Why do consumers buy counterfeit luxury brands? Journal of Marketing Research, 46(2), 247–259.
Aaker, J. L. (1999). The malleable self: The role of self-expression in persuasion. Journal of Marketing Research, 36(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151914
Aguirre-Rodriguez, A. (2014). Cultural factors that affect brand personification strategy effectiveness. Psychology & Marketing, 31(1), 70-83.
Armstrong, J. S. & Overton, T. S. (1977). Estimating nonresponse bias in mail surveys relationships. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(Aug), 396–400.
Aron, A., Norman, C. C., Aron, E. N., McKenna, C. & Heyman, R. C. (2000). Couples' participation in novel and arousing activities and experienced relationship quality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(2), 273–284.
Bagozzi, R. P. (1980). Causal models in marketing. New York: John Wiley.
Baumgarth, C., Lohrisch, N. & Kastner, O. L. (2014). Arts meet luxury brands. In B. Berghaus, G. Müller-Stewens, & S. Reinecke (Eds.). The Management of Luxury, Kogan Page Publishers.
Becker, K., Lee, J. W. & Nobre, H. (2018). Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business, 5(3), 51-63
Bengtsson, A., Bardhi, F. & Venkatraman, M. (2010). How global brands travel with consumers: an examination of the relationship between brand consistency and meaning across national boundaries. International Marketing Review, 27(5), 519-540.
Bentler, P.M. (2005) EQS 6 Structural Equations Program Manual. Multivariate Software, Encino.
Berrozpe, A., Campo, S. & Yagüe, M. J. (2017). Understanding the identity of Ibiza, Spain. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 34(8), 1033–1046.
Beverland, M. (2004). Uncovering theories-in-use: building luxury wine brands. European Journal of Marketing, 38(3/4), 446-466.
Bian, Q. & Forsythe, S. (2012). Purchase intention for luxury brands: A cross cultural comparison. Journal of Business Research, 63, 1443–1451.
Bijmolt, T. H. A., Leeflang, P. S. H., Block, F., Eisenbeiss, M., Hardie, B. G. S., Lemmens, A., & Saffert, P. (2010). Analytics for customer engagement. Journal of Service Research, 13, 341-356
Blackston, M. (1993). Beyond brand personality: Building brand relationships. In D. A. Aaker, & A. Biel (Eds.). Brand equity and advertising: Advertising's role in building strong brands (pp. 113–124). Hilsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Blackston, M. (1995). The qualitative dimension of brand. Journal of Advertising Research, 35(4), RC-2–RC-7.
Brakus, J., Schmitt, B. H. & Zarantonello, L. (2009). Brand experience: What is it? How is it measured? Does it affect loyalty? Journal of Marketing, 73(May), 52–68.
Brandão, A., Pinho, E. & Rodrigues, P. (2019). Antecedents and consequences of luxury brand engagement in social media. Spanish Journal of Marketing - ESIC, 23(2), 163-183. https://doi.org/10.1108/SJME-11-2018-0052
Byrne, B. M., Baron, P. & Balev, J. (1998). The Beck Depression Inventory: A cross-validated test of factorial structure for Bulgarian adolescents. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58, 241–251.
Chitturi, R., Chitturi, P. & Raghavarao, D. (2010). Design for synergy with brand or price information. Psychology & Marketing, 27(7), 679-697.
Chun, H., Diehl, K. & MacInnis, D. (2017). Savoring an upcoming experience affects ongoing and remembered consumption enjoyment. Journal of Marketing, 81(3),96-110
Cristini, H., Kauppinen-Raisanen, H., Barthod-Prothade, M. & Woodside, A. (2017). Toward a general theory of luxury: Advancing from workbench definitions and theoretical transformations. Journal of Business Research, 10(1), 101–107.
Da Silveira, C., Lages, C. & Simoes, C. (2013). Reconceptualizing brand identity in a dynamic environment. Journal of Business Research, 66(1), 28–36.
Dabholkar, P. A., Thorpe, D. I. & Rentz, J. (1996). A measure of service quality for retail stores: Scale development and validation. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 24(1), 3–16.
Dion, D. & Arnould, E. (2011). Retail luxury strategy: Assembling charisma through art and magic. Journal of Retailing, 87(4), 502-520.
Dubois, B. & Duquesne, P. (1993). The Market for Luxury Goods: Income versus Culture, European Journal of Marketing, 27 (1), 35-44. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090569310024530
Ekinci, Y., Yoon, T. H. & Oppewal, H. (2005). An Examination of the Brand Relationship Quality Scale in the Evaluation of Restaurant Brands. Advances in Hospitality and Leisure, 1, 189-198.
Fletcher, G. J. O., Simpson, J. A., Thomas, G. & Giles, L. (1999). Ideals in intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1), 72–89.
Fog, K., Budtz, C., Munch, P. & Blanchette, S. (2010). Storytelling: Branding in practice (2nd ed.). Copenhagen, Denmark: Springer.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(February), 39–50.
Fournier, S. (1998). Consumers and their brands: Developing relationship theory in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 2(4), 343–373.
Fung So, K. K., King, C. & Sparks, B. (2012). Customer Engagement With Tourism Brands: Scale Development and Validation. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research. 20(10), 10.1177/1096348012451456.
Han, S. H., Nguyen, B. & Lee, T. J. (2015). Consumer-based chain restaurant brand equity, brand reputation, and brand trust. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 50, 84–93.
Heine, K. & Phan, M. (2011). Trading-up mass-market goods to luxury products. Australasian Marketing Journal, 19(2), 108–114.
Holt, D.B., Quelch, J.A. & Taylor, E.L. (2004). How global brands compete. Harvard Business
Review, 82(9), 68-75.
Hollebeek, L. D. (2009). November-December). Demystifying customer engagement: Toward the development of a conceptual model. Paper presented at the ANZMAC 2009 conference, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
Hong, J. W. & Zinkhan, G. M. (1995). Self-concept and advertising effectiveness: The influence of congruency, conspicuousness, and response mode. Psychology & Marketing, 12(1), 53–77. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.4220120105
Huang, Z. J. & Cai, L. A. (2015). Modeling consumer-based brand equity for multinational hotel brands–when hosts become guests. Tourism Management, 46(2), 431–443.
Joreskog, K. G. & Sorbom, D. (1996a). LISREL 8: User’s reference guide. Chicago: Scientific Software International.
Joy, A., Sherry Jr., J., Venkatesh, A., Wang, J. & Chan, R. (2012). Fast Fashion, Sustainability, and the Ethical Appeal of Luxury Brands. Fashion Theory, September.
Kapferer, J. N. (2014). The artification of luxury: From artisans to artists. Business Horizons, 57(3), 371–380.
Kapferer, J.-N. & Laurent, G. (2016). Where do consumers think luxury begins? A study of perceived minimum price for 21 luxury goods in 7 countries. Journal of Business Research, 69(1), 332–340.
Kapferer, J.N. (2006). The two business cultures of luxury brands in Schroeder, J. & Salzer-Mörling, M. (Eds), Brand Culture, Taylor and Francis, London, 67-76.
Kastanakis, M. N. & Balabanis, G. (2012). Between the mass and the class: Antecedents of the “bandwagon” luxury consumption behavior. Journal of Business Research, 65(10), 1399–1407.
Kaufman, H. R., Loureiro, S. M. C. & Manarioti, A. (2016). Exploring Behavioural branding, brand love and brand co-creation. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 25(6), 516–526.
Kim, A. J. & Ko, E. (2012). Do social media marketing activities enhance customer equity? An empirical study of luxury fashion brand. Journal of Business Research, 65, 1480–1486.
Koronaki, E., Kyrousi, A. G. & Panigyrakis, G. G. (2017). The emotional value of arts-based initiatives: Strengthening the luxury brand–consumer relationship. Journal of Business Research, 85, 406-413
Lee, E. J. (2013). A prototype of multicomponent brand personality structure: A consumption symbolism approach. Psychology & Marketing, 30(2), 173-186.
Liao, J. & Wang, L. (2009). Face as a mediator of the relationship between material value and brand consciousness. Psychology & Marketing, 26(11), 987–1001.
Liu, M. T., Wong, I.A., Tseng, T. & Chang, A. W. (2017). Applying consumer-based brand equity in luxury hotel branding. Journal of Business Research, 81, 192-202
Lu, A. C. C., Gursoy, D. & Lu, C. Y. (2015). Authenticity perceptions, brand equity and brand choice intention: The case of ethnic restaurants. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 50, 36–45.
MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M. & Rich, GA. (2009). Transformational and transactional leadership and salesperson performance. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 29(2), 115–134.
Macey, W. H. & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 3-30.
Merz, M. A., Zarantonello, L. & Grappi, S. (2018). How valuable are your customers in the brand value co-creation process? The development of a customer co-creation value (CCCV) scale. Journal of Business Research, 82(January), 79–89.
Nobre, H. & Simoes, C. (2019). NewLux Brand Relationship Scale: Capturing the scope of mass-consumed luxury brand relationships. Journal of Business Research, 102, 328-338.
Nobre, H. (2015). The new-luxury brand relationship scale: Measuring relationships with mass-consumed luxury brands (working paper) Portugal: University of Aveiro.
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Patterson, P., Yu, T. & de Ruyter, K. (2006, December 4-6). Understanding customer engagement in services. Paper presented at the ANZMAC 2006: Advancing theory, maintaining relevance, Brisbane, Queensland.
Payne, A., Storbacka, K., Frow, P. & Knox, S. (2009). Co-creating brands: Diagnosing and designing the brand experience relationship. Journal of Business Research, 69(3), 379–789.
Prahalad, C. K. & Ramaswamy, V. (2004). Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(3), 4–9.
Roper, S., Caruana, R., Medway, D. & Murphy, P. (2013). Constructing luxury brands: exploring the role of consumer discourse. European Journal of Marketing, 47(3/4), 375-400.
Schroeder, J. E. (2009). The cultural codes of branding. Marketing Theory, 9(1), 123-126.
Schroeder, J. E. (2005). The artist and the brand. European Journal of Marketing, 39, 1291-1305.
Seo, Y. & Buchanan-Oliver, M. (2015). Luxury branding: the industry, trends, and future conceptualisations. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 27(1), 82-98.
Sirgy, M. J. (1982). Self-concept in consumer behavior: A critical review. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(3), 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1086/208924.
Sung, Y., Choi, S. M., Ahn, H. & Song, Y. A. (2015). Dimensions of luxury brand personality: Scale development and validation. Psychology & Marketing, 32(1), 121-132.
Torelli, C., Keh, H. T. & Chiu, C. Y. (2010). Cultural symbolism of brands. Brands and Brand Management: Contemporary Research Perspectives. 113-132.
Townsend, C. & Sood, S. (2012). Self-affirmation through the choice of highly aesthetic products. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(2), 415-428.
Tynan, C., McKechnie, S. & Chhuon, C. (2010). Co-creating value for luxury brands. Journal of Business Research, 63(11), 1156–1163.
Vargo, S. L. & Lusch, R. F. (2004). Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing. Journal of Marketing, 68(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.68.1.1.24036.
Vickers, J. S. & Renand, F. (2003). The marketing of luxury goods: An exploratory study – Three conceptual dimensions. The Marketing Review, 3, 459–478.
Wilcox, K., Kim, H. M. & Sen, S. (2009). Why do consumers buy counterfeit luxury brands? Journal of Marketing Research, 46(2), 247–259.
