Travel intention and Behavioral Changes during COVID-19 Pandemic: Empirical Implication for the Travel and Tourism Industry
Keywords:
behavior, COVID-19, intentions, pandemic, travel, travellers
Abstract
The COVID-19 outbreak has miserably disrupted the tourism industry and travelling lifestyle of people. Since the outbreak is not yet over it is presumed that the intention and behavior of people towards travelling will change. Thus, in this context, the study employs an empirical research to examines the travel intentions of travellers during COVID-19 pandemic and identifies the behavioral changes that traveller’s may have experienced while visiting any destination during the pandemic. For this purpose, a primary data was collected from 121 travellers randomly and analyzed using descriptive statistics, regression analysis, ANOVA, paired and independent sample t-test. The result indicates that the travel intentions of the respondents are influenced by perceived behavioral control. It is also revealed that the respondents will only choose such destinations that have taken all the precautionary measures. The study concludes that COVID-19 pandemic has significantly influenced the travel behavior of travellers.
References
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Ajzen, I., & Fishbone, M. 1972. Attitudes and normative beliefs as factors influencing behavioral intentions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031930
Bakar, N. A., & Rosbi, S. 2020. Effect of coronavirus disease (covid-19) on the tourism industry. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 7(4), 189–193. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.74.23
Beerli, A., & Martín, J. D. 2004. Factors influencing destination image. Annals of Tourism Research 31 (3), 657–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2004.01.010
Brouder, P. 2020. Reset redux: Possible evolutionary pathways towards the transformation of tourism in a COVID-19 world. Tourism Geographies 22 (3), 484–490. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1760928
Brouder, P., Teoh, S., Salazar, N. B., Mostafanezhad, M., Pung, M., Lapointe, D., Desbiolles, F. H., Haywood, M., Hall, M., Clausen, H. B. 2020. Reflections and discussions: Tourism matters in the new normal post covid-19. Tourism Geographies 22 (3), 735–746. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1770325
Cacioppo, J. T., & Hawkley, L. C. 2009. Perceived social isolation and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13(10), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.06.005
Çelik, S. 2019. Psychological factors affecting the behavioral intention of the tourist visiting Southeastern, Anatolia. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights 2 (4), 425-450. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-01-2019-0005
Chakraborty, I., Sen, I. K., Mondal, S., Bar, H., Nayak, A., Bhanja, S. K., & Maity, P. 2020. Traveler as a risk factor for migration of COVID-19 in India. Journal of Transport and Health 18 (July), 17–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2020.100915
Chan-yeung, M., & Xu, R. 2003. SARS : Epidemiology cumulative number of cases and deaths in various countries. Respirology 8, S9–S14.
Chebli, A., & Ben Said, F. 2020. The impact of COVID-19 on tourist consumption behavior: A perspective article. Journal of Tourism Management Research 7(2), 196–207. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.31.2020.72.196.207
Cheer, J. M. 2020. Human flourishing, tourism transformation, and COVID-19: A conceptual touchstone. Tourism Geographies-An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1765016
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Chinazzi, M., Davis, J. T., Ajelli, M., Gioannini, C., Litvinova, M., Merler, S., Pastore y Piontti, A., Mu, K., Rossi, L., Sun, K., Viboud, C., Xiong, X., Yu, H., Elizabeth Halloran, M., Longini, I. M., & Vespignani, A. 2020. The effect of travel restrictions on the spread of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak. Science 368 (6489), 395–400. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba9757
Choufany, H. M. 2020. COVID-19: Traveller and hotel guest sentiment findings. HVS Middle East, Africa and South Asia 1-15.
Donthu, N., & Gustafsson, A. 2020. Effects of COVID-19 on business and research. Journal of Business Research 117 (June), 284–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.06.008
Goodell, J. W. 2020. COVID-19 and finance: Agendas for future research. Finance Research Letters 35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2020.101512
Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C. M., Gössling, S., Scott, D., & Pandemics, C. M. H. 2020. Pandemics, tourism, and global change : A rapid assessment of covid-19. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 29 (1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708
Higgins-Desbiolles, F. 2020. Socializing tourism for social and ecological justice after COVID-19. Tourism Geographies 1– 14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1757748.
Hoque, A., Shikha, F. A., Hasanat, M. W., Arif, I., & Hamid, A. B. A. 2020. The effect of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the tourism industry in China. Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies 3(1), 52-58.
Ivanova, M., Ivanov, I. K., & Ivanov, S. 2020. Travel behavior after the pandemic: The case of Bulgaria. Anatolia-An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2020.1818267
Jalilvand, M. R., & Samiei, N. 2012. The impact of electronic word of mouth on a tourism destination choice: Testing the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Internet Research 22(5), 591–612. https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211271563
Jun Wen, Metin Kozak, S. Y. and F. L. 2020. COVID-19: Potential effects on Chinese citizens’ lifestyle and travel. Tourism Review 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2020-0110
Kourgiantakis, M., Apostolakis, A., & Dimou, I. 2020. COVID-19 and holiday intentions : The case of Crete, Greece. Anatolia 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2020.1781221
Kozak, M. 2002. Comparative analysis of tourist motivations by nationality and destinations. Tourism Management 23(3), 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177 (01)00090-5
Kumar, H., & Nataraj, M. 2020. The impact of covid-19 mobility restrictions in India: Comparing state and central responses. MPRA- Munich Personal RePEc Archive 1-9. 100325.
Kumar, H., Nataraj, M., & Kundu, S. 2020. COVID-19 and federalism in India: Capturing the effects of voluntary, state and central responses on mobility. SSRN Electronic Journal 31 (June), 1-45. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3687803
L. Moutinho, T. A. and M. C. 2011. How far does the overall service quality of a destination does affects customers' post-purchase behaviors? International Journal of Tourism Research 14 (4), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr
Lam, T., & Hsu, C. H. C. 2006. Predicting behavioral intention of choosing a travel destination. Tourism Management 27(4), 589–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.02.003
Lam, T., & Hsu, C. H. C. 2004. Theory of planned behavior: Potential travelers from China. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research 28(4), 463–482. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348004267515
Lew, A. A., Cheer, J. M., Haywood, M., Brouder, P., & Noel, B. 2020. Visions of travel and tourism after the global covid-19 transformation of 2020. Tourism Geographies 22(3), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1770326
Li, J., Nguyen, T. H. H., & Coca-Stefaniak, J. A. 2020. Coronavirus impacts on post-pandemic planned travel behaviors. Annals of Tourism Research March, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102964
Li, M., Cai, L. A., & Qiu, S. 2016. A value, affective attitude, and tourist behavioral intention model. Journal of China Tourism Research 12(2), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388160.2016.1225620
Madubuike, S. 2020. COVID-19 effect on travel behavior among Vantaa residents. Haaga-Helia-University of Applied Science 1-50.
Nicola, M., Alsafi, Z., Sohrabi, C., Kerwan, A., Al-Jabir, A., Iosifidis, C., Agha, M., & Aghaf, R. 2020. The socio-economic implications of the coronavirus and COVID-19 pandemic: A review. International Journal of Surgery 78, 185–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.018
Noel Scott; Eric Laws, B. P. 2008. Tourism crises and marketing recovery strategies. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 23(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v23n02
Nowland, R., Necka, E. A., & Cacioppo, J. T. 2018. Loneliness and social internet use: Pathways to reconnection in a digital world? Perspectives on Psychological Science 13(1), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617713052
Oliver, N., Barber, X., Roomp, K., & Roomp, K. 2020. The COVID-19 impact survey: Assessing the pulse of the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain via 24 questions. 1–30. https://doi.org/10.2196/21319
Parady, G., Taniguchi, A., & Takami, K. 2020. Travel behavior changes during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan: Analyzing the effects of risk perception and social influence on going-out self-restriction. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 7, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100181
Person, B., Sy, F., Holton, K., Govert, B., Liang, A., & Sars, N. 2004. The impact of government restrictions. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10 (2), 358–363.
Rogerson, C. M., & Rogerson, J. M. 2020. COVID-19 tourism impacts in South Africa: Government and industry responses. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites 3 (3), 1083-1091. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.31321-544
Rossi, A. N., & Armstrong, J. B. 1999. Theory of reasoned action vs. Theory of planned behavior: Testing the suitability and sufficiency of a popular behavior model using hunting intentions. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 4 (3), 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/10871209909359156
Shamshiripour, A., Rahimi, E., Shabanpour, R., & Mohammadian, A. (Kouros). 2020. How is COVID-19 reshaping activity-travel behavior? Evidence from a Comprehensive Survey in Chicago. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 7, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100216
Sigala, M. 2020. Tourism and COVID-19: Impacts and implications for advancing and resetting industry and research. Journal of Business Research 117, 312–321.
Singh, V., Tech, M., Gupta, K., Agarwal, A., Author, C., & Chakrabarty, N. 2020. Psychological Impacts on the Travel Behavior Post-COVID-19. Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee 1–13. http://faculty.iitr.ac.in/~amitfce/publications.html.
Siu, Y. M. J. 2008. The SARS-associated stigma of SARS victims in the post-SARS era of Hong Kong. Qualitative Health Research 18(6), 729–738. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732308318372
Tran, B., Chen, C., Tseng, W., & Liao, S. 2020. Tourism under the early phase of COVID-19 in four APEC economies: An estimation with special focus on SARS experiences. An International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207543.
Troko, J., Myles, P., Gibson, J., Hashim, A., Enstone, J., Kingdon, S., Packham, C., Amin, S., Hayward, A., & Van-Tam, J. N. 2011. Is public transport a risk factor for acute respiratory infection? BMC Infectious Diseases 11:16, 2–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-11-16
Vos, J. De. 2020. The effect of COVID-19 and Subsequent social distancing on travel behavior. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 5, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100121
Wachyuni, S. S., & Kusumaningrum, D. A. 2020. The effect of COVID-19 pandemic: How are the future tourist behavior? Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science 33(4), 67–76. https://doi.org/10.9734/jesbs/2020/v33i430219
Weeraratne, N.C 2016. The effectiveness of factor analysis as a statistical tool of variable reduction technique. International Journal of Core Engineering & Management 2 (4), 145-151.
Wu, Y., Huang, M., Xie, G., & Chen, X. 2020. People's behavior changes in China during COVID-19 pandemic. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.15.20097667
Yang, Y., Zhang, H., & Chen, X. 2020. Coronavirus pandemic and tourism: Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium modeling of infectious disease outbreak. Annals of Tourism Research 83 (February). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102913
Yeh, S. 2020. Tourism recovery strategy against COVID-19 pandemic. Tourism Recreation Research 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2020.1805933
Zandifar, A., & Badrfam, R. 2020. Iranian mental health during the COVID-19 epidemic. Asian Journal of Psychiatry 51 (February). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.101990
Zhang, W., Gu, H., & Kavanaugh, R. R. 2005. The impacts of SARS on the consumer behavior of Chinese domestic tourists. Current Issues in Tourism 8(1), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500508668203
Ajzen, I. 1991. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, (1), 179–211.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbone, M. 1972. Attitudes and normative beliefs as factors influencing behavioral intentions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031930
Bakar, N. A., & Rosbi, S. 2020. Effect of coronavirus disease (covid-19) on the tourism industry. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 7(4), 189–193. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.74.23
Beerli, A., & Martín, J. D. 2004. Factors influencing destination image. Annals of Tourism Research 31 (3), 657–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2004.01.010
Brouder, P. 2020. Reset redux: Possible evolutionary pathways towards the transformation of tourism in a COVID-19 world. Tourism Geographies 22 (3), 484–490. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1760928
Brouder, P., Teoh, S., Salazar, N. B., Mostafanezhad, M., Pung, M., Lapointe, D., Desbiolles, F. H., Haywood, M., Hall, M., Clausen, H. B. 2020. Reflections and discussions: Tourism matters in the new normal post covid-19. Tourism Geographies 22 (3), 735–746. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1770325
Cacioppo, J. T., & Hawkley, L. C. 2009. Perceived social isolation and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13(10), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.06.005
Çelik, S. 2019. Psychological factors affecting the behavioral intention of the tourist visiting Southeastern, Anatolia. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights 2 (4), 425-450. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-01-2019-0005
Chakraborty, I., Sen, I. K., Mondal, S., Bar, H., Nayak, A., Bhanja, S. K., & Maity, P. 2020. Traveler as a risk factor for migration of COVID-19 in India. Journal of Transport and Health 18 (July), 17–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2020.100915
Chan-yeung, M., & Xu, R. 2003. SARS : Epidemiology cumulative number of cases and deaths in various countries. Respirology 8, S9–S14.
Chebli, A., & Ben Said, F. 2020. The impact of COVID-19 on tourist consumption behavior: A perspective article. Journal of Tourism Management Research 7(2), 196–207. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.31.2020.72.196.207
Cheer, J. M. 2020. Human flourishing, tourism transformation, and COVID-19: A conceptual touchstone. Tourism Geographies-An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1765016
Chen, K., Enger, W., Yu, J., & Zhang, C. 2020. Hitting the road again: How Chinese travelers are thinking about their first trip after COVID-19. McKinsey & Company, May 1–7.
Chinazzi, M., Davis, J. T., Ajelli, M., Gioannini, C., Litvinova, M., Merler, S., Pastore y Piontti, A., Mu, K., Rossi, L., Sun, K., Viboud, C., Xiong, X., Yu, H., Elizabeth Halloran, M., Longini, I. M., & Vespignani, A. 2020. The effect of travel restrictions on the spread of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak. Science 368 (6489), 395–400. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba9757
Choufany, H. M. 2020. COVID-19: Traveller and hotel guest sentiment findings. HVS Middle East, Africa and South Asia 1-15.
Donthu, N., & Gustafsson, A. 2020. Effects of COVID-19 on business and research. Journal of Business Research 117 (June), 284–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.06.008
Goodell, J. W. 2020. COVID-19 and finance: Agendas for future research. Finance Research Letters 35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2020.101512
Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C. M., Gössling, S., Scott, D., & Pandemics, C. M. H. 2020. Pandemics, tourism, and global change : A rapid assessment of covid-19. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 29 (1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708
Higgins-Desbiolles, F. 2020. Socializing tourism for social and ecological justice after COVID-19. Tourism Geographies 1– 14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1757748.
Hoque, A., Shikha, F. A., Hasanat, M. W., Arif, I., & Hamid, A. B. A. 2020. The effect of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the tourism industry in China. Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies 3(1), 52-58.
Ivanova, M., Ivanov, I. K., & Ivanov, S. 2020. Travel behavior after the pandemic: The case of Bulgaria. Anatolia-An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2020.1818267
Jalilvand, M. R., & Samiei, N. 2012. The impact of electronic word of mouth on a tourism destination choice: Testing the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Internet Research 22(5), 591–612. https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211271563
Jun Wen, Metin Kozak, S. Y. and F. L. 2020. COVID-19: Potential effects on Chinese citizens’ lifestyle and travel. Tourism Review 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2020-0110
Kourgiantakis, M., Apostolakis, A., & Dimou, I. 2020. COVID-19 and holiday intentions : The case of Crete, Greece. Anatolia 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2020.1781221
Kozak, M. 2002. Comparative analysis of tourist motivations by nationality and destinations. Tourism Management 23(3), 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177 (01)00090-5
Kumar, H., & Nataraj, M. 2020. The impact of covid-19 mobility restrictions in India: Comparing state and central responses. MPRA- Munich Personal RePEc Archive 1-9. 100325.
Kumar, H., Nataraj, M., & Kundu, S. 2020. COVID-19 and federalism in India: Capturing the effects of voluntary, state and central responses on mobility. SSRN Electronic Journal 31 (June), 1-45. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3687803
L. Moutinho, T. A. and M. C. 2011. How far does the overall service quality of a destination does affects customers' post-purchase behaviors? International Journal of Tourism Research 14 (4), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr
Lam, T., & Hsu, C. H. C. 2006. Predicting behavioral intention of choosing a travel destination. Tourism Management 27(4), 589–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.02.003
Lam, T., & Hsu, C. H. C. 2004. Theory of planned behavior: Potential travelers from China. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research 28(4), 463–482. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348004267515
Lew, A. A., Cheer, J. M., Haywood, M., Brouder, P., & Noel, B. 2020. Visions of travel and tourism after the global covid-19 transformation of 2020. Tourism Geographies 22(3), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1770326
Li, J., Nguyen, T. H. H., & Coca-Stefaniak, J. A. 2020. Coronavirus impacts on post-pandemic planned travel behaviors. Annals of Tourism Research March, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102964
Li, M., Cai, L. A., & Qiu, S. 2016. A value, affective attitude, and tourist behavioral intention model. Journal of China Tourism Research 12(2), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388160.2016.1225620
Madubuike, S. 2020. COVID-19 effect on travel behavior among Vantaa residents. Haaga-Helia-University of Applied Science 1-50.
Nicola, M., Alsafi, Z., Sohrabi, C., Kerwan, A., Al-Jabir, A., Iosifidis, C., Agha, M., & Aghaf, R. 2020. The socio-economic implications of the coronavirus and COVID-19 pandemic: A review. International Journal of Surgery 78, 185–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.018
Noel Scott; Eric Laws, B. P. 2008. Tourism crises and marketing recovery strategies. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 23(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v23n02
Nowland, R., Necka, E. A., & Cacioppo, J. T. 2018. Loneliness and social internet use: Pathways to reconnection in a digital world? Perspectives on Psychological Science 13(1), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617713052
Oliver, N., Barber, X., Roomp, K., & Roomp, K. 2020. The COVID-19 impact survey: Assessing the pulse of the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain via 24 questions. 1–30. https://doi.org/10.2196/21319
Parady, G., Taniguchi, A., & Takami, K. 2020. Travel behavior changes during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan: Analyzing the effects of risk perception and social influence on going-out self-restriction. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 7, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100181
Person, B., Sy, F., Holton, K., Govert, B., Liang, A., & Sars, N. 2004. The impact of government restrictions. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10 (2), 358–363.
Rogerson, C. M., & Rogerson, J. M. 2020. COVID-19 tourism impacts in South Africa: Government and industry responses. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites 3 (3), 1083-1091. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.31321-544
Rossi, A. N., & Armstrong, J. B. 1999. Theory of reasoned action vs. Theory of planned behavior: Testing the suitability and sufficiency of a popular behavior model using hunting intentions. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 4 (3), 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/10871209909359156
Shamshiripour, A., Rahimi, E., Shabanpour, R., & Mohammadian, A. (Kouros). 2020. How is COVID-19 reshaping activity-travel behavior? Evidence from a Comprehensive Survey in Chicago. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 7, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100216
Sigala, M. 2020. Tourism and COVID-19: Impacts and implications for advancing and resetting industry and research. Journal of Business Research 117, 312–321.
Singh, V., Tech, M., Gupta, K., Agarwal, A., Author, C., & Chakrabarty, N. 2020. Psychological Impacts on the Travel Behavior Post-COVID-19. Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee 1–13. http://faculty.iitr.ac.in/~amitfce/publications.html.
Siu, Y. M. J. 2008. The SARS-associated stigma of SARS victims in the post-SARS era of Hong Kong. Qualitative Health Research 18(6), 729–738. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732308318372
Tran, B., Chen, C., Tseng, W., & Liao, S. 2020. Tourism under the early phase of COVID-19 in four APEC economies: An estimation with special focus on SARS experiences. An International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207543.
Troko, J., Myles, P., Gibson, J., Hashim, A., Enstone, J., Kingdon, S., Packham, C., Amin, S., Hayward, A., & Van-Tam, J. N. 2011. Is public transport a risk factor for acute respiratory infection? BMC Infectious Diseases 11:16, 2–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-11-16
Vos, J. De. 2020. The effect of COVID-19 and Subsequent social distancing on travel behavior. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 5, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100121
Wachyuni, S. S., & Kusumaningrum, D. A. 2020. The effect of COVID-19 pandemic: How are the future tourist behavior? Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science 33(4), 67–76. https://doi.org/10.9734/jesbs/2020/v33i430219
Weeraratne, N.C 2016. The effectiveness of factor analysis as a statistical tool of variable reduction technique. International Journal of Core Engineering & Management 2 (4), 145-151.
Wu, Y., Huang, M., Xie, G., & Chen, X. 2020. People's behavior changes in China during COVID-19 pandemic. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.15.20097667
Yang, Y., Zhang, H., & Chen, X. 2020. Coronavirus pandemic and tourism: Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium modeling of infectious disease outbreak. Annals of Tourism Research 83 (February). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102913
Yeh, S. 2020. Tourism recovery strategy against COVID-19 pandemic. Tourism Recreation Research 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2020.1805933
Zandifar, A., & Badrfam, R. 2020. Iranian mental health during the COVID-19 epidemic. Asian Journal of Psychiatry 51 (February). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.101990
Zhang, W., Gu, H., & Kavanaugh, R. R. 2005. The impacts of SARS on the consumer behavior of Chinese domestic tourists. Current Issues in Tourism 8(1), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500508668203
