English The burden of tuberculosis as a permanent medical and legal challenge for mankind through the centuries
Keywords:
Tuberkuloza; Istorija; Pravna moć; Zakonska prava;, Tuberculosis; History; Legal power; Legal rights;
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious disease, throughout human history, permanently opens numerous medical and legal questions, for which the answers are implied by the current social circumstances.
In ancient times, insufficient knowledge of the etiopathogenesis of TB resulted in discrimination and isolation of patients. In the Middle Ages, kings used TB as a disease to secure their political power over the citizens, while TB culturally took a romanticized form during the 19th end 20th centuries, together with a great social phobia of contagion, disease, and dying on the other side. Stereotypes were formed around all TB victims, while society tried to understand the nature of the disease and establish a civilizational relationship, with it as a health problem with numerous social implications. Modern public health measures to control the TB pandemic established after the discovery of the Koch bacillus, the invention and mass use of the BCG vaccine, the discovery of streptomycin and isoniazid, and the new era of TB treatment, with the consequent emergence of drug resistance, co-epidemic with AIDS, neglect of public health facilities and the current COVID-19 pandemics, threaten the many legal rights of the infected and the sick and pose new challenges in its global elimination.
Numerous attempts by society over the centuries to devise preventive and therapeutic measures for TB, through different levels of social obligations and activities, have had and continue to have a profound impact on the human race, shaping its further response to the victims of this deadly disease.
References
1. Barberis I, Bragazzi NL, Galluzzo L, et al. The History Of Tuberculosis: From The First Historical Records To The Isolation Of Koch’s Bacillus. J Prev Med Hyg. 2017; 58: 9-12. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/5584_2017_125.
2. Mac Donald EM, Izzo AA. Tuberculosis Vaccine Development. In: Ribbon W (Ed.). Tuberculosis-Expanding Knowledge. In Tech, 2015. https://doi.org/ 10.5772/59751.
3. World Health Organisation. Global Tuberculosis Report 2018. World Health Organization: Geneva, 2018: 1-7. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274453/9789241565646-eng.pdf?ua=1 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
4. Parmet WE. Legal Power And Legal Rights - Isolation And Quarantine In The Case Of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 2007; 357(5): 433-5. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp078133.
5. Gittler J. Controlling Resurgent Tuberculosis: Public Health Agencies, Public Policy, and Law. J Health Polit Policy Law. 1994; 19(1): 107-47. https://doi.org/ 10.1215/03616878-19-1-107.
6. Luca S, Mihaescu T. History of BCG Vaccine. Maedica (Buchar) 2013; 8(1): 53-8. PMID: 24023600.
7. Hayman J. Mycobacterium Ulcerans: An Infection From Jurassic Time? Lancet 1984;2(8410):1015-6. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/s0140-6736(84)91110-3.
8. Lauer SA. The Social Impact of the Misconceptions Surrounding Tuberculosis. Iowa Historical Review 2017; 7(1): 55-78. https://doi.org/10.17077/2373-1842-1039.
9. Daniel VS, Daniel TM. Old Testament Biblical References to Tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29(6): 1557–8. https://doi.org/10.1086/313562.
10. Waksman SA. The Conquest of Tuberculosis. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA, 1964: 29-64. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520328471.
11. Pezzella, AT. History of Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Thoracic Surgery Clinics 2019: 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thorsurg.2018.09.002.
12. Pormann T, Peter E, Karimullah KI. The Arabic Commentaries On The Hippocratic Aphorisms: Introduction. Oriens 2017; 45 : 1-52. https://doi.org/10.1163/18778372-04501006.
13. Longrigg J. Death And Epidemic Disease In Classical Athens. Death And Disease In The Ancient City. Routledge, 2002:67-76. http://hdl.handle.net/10822/994206.
14. Cushing A. Illness and health in the Ancient World. Collegian 1998; 5(3) : 44-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1322-7696(08)60304-2.
15. Wear A, Hays JN. The Burdens Of Disease: Epidemics And Human Response In Western History, 1st ed. New Brunswick, N.J. Rutgers University Press. 1998. Pp. xi, 361. The American Historical Review, 2000; 105(5):1700-1. https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/105.5.1700.
16. Santacroce L, Bottalico L, Charitos I A. Greek Medicine Practice At Ancient Rome: The Physician Molecularist Asclepiades. Medicines 2017; 4(4) : 92-93. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines4040092.
17. Bray FN, Alsaidan M, Simmons BJ et al. Scrofula And The Divine Right Of Royalty: The King’s Touch. JAMA Dermatol 2015;151(7): 702-6. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2015.0449.
18. Brăilean T, Aurelian-Petrus P. Christianity And Political Democracy In The Middle Ages And Modern Times. Human and Social Studies 2013; 2(2): 119-37. https://doi.org/10.2478/hssr-2013-0007.
19. Sabbatini S. Historical insights into tuberculosis. Girolamo Fracastoro’s intuition on the transmission of tuberculosis and his opponents. History of an idea. Infez Med 2004; 12(4): 284-91. PMID: 15729021.
20. Barberis I, Bragazzi NL, Galluzzo L, et al. The history of tuberculosis: from the first historical records to the isolation of Koch's bacillus. J Prev Med Hyg 2017; 58(1): E9-E12. PMID: 28515626.
21. Roberts CA, Buikstra JE. The Bioarchaeology Of Tuberculosis: A Global Perspective On A Re-Emerging Disease. University Press of Florida, 2003: 262-72. http://dro.dur.ac.uk/3887/ Available at http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=ROBERS03. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
22. Morens DM. At The Deathbed Of Consumptive Art. Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8(11): 1353-4. https://dx.doi.org/10.3201%2Feid0811.020549.
23. Bell ME. Vampires and Death in New England, 1784 to 1892. Anthropology and Humanism 2006; 31(2): 124-40. https://doi.org/10.1525/ahu.2006.31.2.124.
24. Sledzik PS, Bellantoni N. Bioarcheological And Biocultural Evidence For The New England Vampire Folk Belief. Am J Phys Anthropol 1994; 94(2): 269-74. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330940210.
25. Hancox M. Bovine Tuberculosis: Milk And Meat Safety. The Lancet 2002; 359 (9307): 706-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07786-3.
26. Olmstead AL, Rhode PW. An impossible undertaking: the eradication of bovine tuberculosis in the United States. J Econ His 2004; 64(3): 734-72. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050704002955.
27. Abrams JE. Spitting Is Dangerous, Indecent, And Against The Law! Legislating Health Behavior During The American Tuberculosis Crusade. J Hist Med Allied Sci 2013; 68(3): 416-50. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhmas/jrr073.
28. Coomber R, Moyle L, Pavlidis A. Public Spitting in “Developing” Nations of the Global South: Harmless Embedded Practice or Disgusting, Harmful and Deviant? In: Carrington K, Hogg R, Scott J, Sozzo M (eds). The Palgrave Handbook of Criminology and the Global South. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018: 493-520. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65021-0_25.
29. Muthu, DJAC. Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Its Etiology and Treatment, a Record of 22 Years' Observation and Work in Open-air Sanatoria. William Wood & Company, 1922:227-290. Available at : https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/34029/GIPE-007194.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
30. Muthu DJAC. The Sanatorium Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis-Is It a Success? Bristol Med Chir J (1883) 1907; 25(95): 50-4. PMID: 28896882.
31. Fairchild, AL, Oppenheimer GM. Public Health Nihilism Vs Pragmatism: History, Politics, And The Control Of Tuberculosis. Am J Public Health 1998; 88(7): 1105-17. Available at: https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.88.7.1105. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
32. Young M. A Study Of The Adjustment Of Patients Discharged From The Jefferson Tuberculosis Sanatorium Between November 1945, And November 1946. ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library1948; Paper 428: 1-37. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/reader/13503450. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
33. Wilson P K. Confronting “Hereditary” Disease: Eugenic Attempts To Eliminate Tuberculosis In Progressive Era America. J Med Humanit 2006; 27(1): 19-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10912-005-9001-6.
34. Caverhill TFS, Calwell Q, Guillemard BJ, et al. A Discussion On The Open-Air Or Hygienic Treatment Of Consumption.” The British Medical Journal 1898; 2 (1970): 946-9. Available at: JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20256097. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
35. Daniel TM. The history of tuberculosis. Respiratory medicine 2006; 100(11): 1862-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2006.08.006
36. Daniel TM. Leon Charles Albert Calmette and BCG vaccine. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2005; 9:205-6. Available at: http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/iuatld/10273719/v9n9/s2.pdf?expires=1592539392&id=0000&titleid=3764&checksum=0991A219B4D82A72E62DBC7A6E90FE06 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
37. Calmette A. On preventive vaccination of the new-born against tuberculosis by B.C.G. Br J Tuberc 1928; 22: 161-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0366-0850(28)80052-4
38. Davies TW, Davies M. Mass radiography in Wales. Experience with a mobile unit. Br J Tuberc Dis Chest 1945; 391: 2-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0366-0869(45)80004-7
39. Comstock GW. The international tuberculosis campaign: a pioneering venture in mass vaccination and research. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 19: 528–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinids/19.3.528
40. Marx FM, Skachkova E I, Son IMet al. Die Kontrolle der Tuberkulose in den Nachfolgestaaten der Sowjetunion am Beispiel Russlands. Pneumologie 2009; 63(05): 253-60. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0028-1119571
41. Schatz A, Bugie E, Waksman SA. Streptomycin, a substance exhibiting antibiotic activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Proc Exp Biol Med 1944; 55: 66-9. https://doi.org/10.3181%2F00379727-55-14461
42. Weitzman D, de Wend Cayley FE, Wingfield AL. Streptomycin in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Brit J Tuberc Dis Chest 1950; 44: 98-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0366-0869(50)80004-7
43. Fogel N. Tuberculosis: a disease without boundaries. Tuberculosis2015; 95(5): 527-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tube.2015.05.017
44. Keshavjee S, Farmer P. Tuberculosis, drug, resistance, and the history of modern medicine. N Engl J Med 2012; 367(10): 931e6 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1205429
45. Comas I, Gagneux S. The past and future of tuberculosis research. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5(10): e1000600. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000600 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
46. World Health Organization. Global tuberculosis report 2014. World Health Organization, 2014 Available at https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/137094 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
47. STOP TB Partnership. Legal environment assessments for tuberculosis: an operational guide. Geneva, Switzerland: Stop TB Partnership, 2017. Available at: http://www.stoptb.org/assets/documents/communities/StopTB_TB%20LEA%20DRAFT_FINAL_Sept%2027.pdf [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
48. Global tuberculosis report 2016. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/250441/1/9789241565394-eng.pdf?ua=1 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
49. Out of step 2015: TB policies in 24 countries. Geneva: Médecins Sans Frontières and Stop TB Partnership; 2015. Available at: https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/sites/usa/files/tb_report_out_of_step_eng_2015 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
50. World Health Organization. The end TB strategy. World Health Organization, 2015. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331326/WHO-HTM-TB-2015.19-eng.pdf [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
51. Saunders MJ, Evans CA. COVID-19, tuberculosis, and poverty: preventing a perfect storm. Eur Respir J 2020; in press. https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01348-2020
52. Glaziou P. Predicted impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on global tuberculosis deaths in 2020. Epidemiology 2020 May 4. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.28.20079582
53. WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. 2020. Available at: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
54. IFRC, UNICEF, WHO. Social Stigma associated with COVID-19. A guide to preventing and addressing social stigma. 2020. Available at: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/covid19-stigma-guide.pdf [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
55. WHO Guidelines on tuberculosis infection prevention and control, 2019 update (WHO/CDS/TB/2019.1). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2019. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/311259/9789241550512-eng.pdf [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
56. WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Infection prevention and control. WASH. Available at: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/infection-prevention-and-control [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
2. Mac Donald EM, Izzo AA. Tuberculosis Vaccine Development. In: Ribbon W (Ed.). Tuberculosis-Expanding Knowledge. In Tech, 2015. https://doi.org/ 10.5772/59751.
3. World Health Organisation. Global Tuberculosis Report 2018. World Health Organization: Geneva, 2018: 1-7. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274453/9789241565646-eng.pdf?ua=1 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
4. Parmet WE. Legal Power And Legal Rights - Isolation And Quarantine In The Case Of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 2007; 357(5): 433-5. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp078133.
5. Gittler J. Controlling Resurgent Tuberculosis: Public Health Agencies, Public Policy, and Law. J Health Polit Policy Law. 1994; 19(1): 107-47. https://doi.org/ 10.1215/03616878-19-1-107.
6. Luca S, Mihaescu T. History of BCG Vaccine. Maedica (Buchar) 2013; 8(1): 53-8. PMID: 24023600.
7. Hayman J. Mycobacterium Ulcerans: An Infection From Jurassic Time? Lancet 1984;2(8410):1015-6. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/s0140-6736(84)91110-3.
8. Lauer SA. The Social Impact of the Misconceptions Surrounding Tuberculosis. Iowa Historical Review 2017; 7(1): 55-78. https://doi.org/10.17077/2373-1842-1039.
9. Daniel VS, Daniel TM. Old Testament Biblical References to Tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29(6): 1557–8. https://doi.org/10.1086/313562.
10. Waksman SA. The Conquest of Tuberculosis. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA, 1964: 29-64. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520328471.
11. Pezzella, AT. History of Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Thoracic Surgery Clinics 2019: 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thorsurg.2018.09.002.
12. Pormann T, Peter E, Karimullah KI. The Arabic Commentaries On The Hippocratic Aphorisms: Introduction. Oriens 2017; 45 : 1-52. https://doi.org/10.1163/18778372-04501006.
13. Longrigg J. Death And Epidemic Disease In Classical Athens. Death And Disease In The Ancient City. Routledge, 2002:67-76. http://hdl.handle.net/10822/994206.
14. Cushing A. Illness and health in the Ancient World. Collegian 1998; 5(3) : 44-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1322-7696(08)60304-2.
15. Wear A, Hays JN. The Burdens Of Disease: Epidemics And Human Response In Western History, 1st ed. New Brunswick, N.J. Rutgers University Press. 1998. Pp. xi, 361. The American Historical Review, 2000; 105(5):1700-1. https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/105.5.1700.
16. Santacroce L, Bottalico L, Charitos I A. Greek Medicine Practice At Ancient Rome: The Physician Molecularist Asclepiades. Medicines 2017; 4(4) : 92-93. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines4040092.
17. Bray FN, Alsaidan M, Simmons BJ et al. Scrofula And The Divine Right Of Royalty: The King’s Touch. JAMA Dermatol 2015;151(7): 702-6. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2015.0449.
18. Brăilean T, Aurelian-Petrus P. Christianity And Political Democracy In The Middle Ages And Modern Times. Human and Social Studies 2013; 2(2): 119-37. https://doi.org/10.2478/hssr-2013-0007.
19. Sabbatini S. Historical insights into tuberculosis. Girolamo Fracastoro’s intuition on the transmission of tuberculosis and his opponents. History of an idea. Infez Med 2004; 12(4): 284-91. PMID: 15729021.
20. Barberis I, Bragazzi NL, Galluzzo L, et al. The history of tuberculosis: from the first historical records to the isolation of Koch's bacillus. J Prev Med Hyg 2017; 58(1): E9-E12. PMID: 28515626.
21. Roberts CA, Buikstra JE. The Bioarchaeology Of Tuberculosis: A Global Perspective On A Re-Emerging Disease. University Press of Florida, 2003: 262-72. http://dro.dur.ac.uk/3887/ Available at http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=ROBERS03. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
22. Morens DM. At The Deathbed Of Consumptive Art. Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8(11): 1353-4. https://dx.doi.org/10.3201%2Feid0811.020549.
23. Bell ME. Vampires and Death in New England, 1784 to 1892. Anthropology and Humanism 2006; 31(2): 124-40. https://doi.org/10.1525/ahu.2006.31.2.124.
24. Sledzik PS, Bellantoni N. Bioarcheological And Biocultural Evidence For The New England Vampire Folk Belief. Am J Phys Anthropol 1994; 94(2): 269-74. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330940210.
25. Hancox M. Bovine Tuberculosis: Milk And Meat Safety. The Lancet 2002; 359 (9307): 706-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07786-3.
26. Olmstead AL, Rhode PW. An impossible undertaking: the eradication of bovine tuberculosis in the United States. J Econ His 2004; 64(3): 734-72. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050704002955.
27. Abrams JE. Spitting Is Dangerous, Indecent, And Against The Law! Legislating Health Behavior During The American Tuberculosis Crusade. J Hist Med Allied Sci 2013; 68(3): 416-50. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhmas/jrr073.
28. Coomber R, Moyle L, Pavlidis A. Public Spitting in “Developing” Nations of the Global South: Harmless Embedded Practice or Disgusting, Harmful and Deviant? In: Carrington K, Hogg R, Scott J, Sozzo M (eds). The Palgrave Handbook of Criminology and the Global South. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018: 493-520. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65021-0_25.
29. Muthu, DJAC. Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Its Etiology and Treatment, a Record of 22 Years' Observation and Work in Open-air Sanatoria. William Wood & Company, 1922:227-290. Available at : https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/34029/GIPE-007194.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
30. Muthu DJAC. The Sanatorium Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis-Is It a Success? Bristol Med Chir J (1883) 1907; 25(95): 50-4. PMID: 28896882.
31. Fairchild, AL, Oppenheimer GM. Public Health Nihilism Vs Pragmatism: History, Politics, And The Control Of Tuberculosis. Am J Public Health 1998; 88(7): 1105-17. Available at: https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.88.7.1105. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
32. Young M. A Study Of The Adjustment Of Patients Discharged From The Jefferson Tuberculosis Sanatorium Between November 1945, And November 1946. ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library1948; Paper 428: 1-37. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/reader/13503450. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
33. Wilson P K. Confronting “Hereditary” Disease: Eugenic Attempts To Eliminate Tuberculosis In Progressive Era America. J Med Humanit 2006; 27(1): 19-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10912-005-9001-6.
34. Caverhill TFS, Calwell Q, Guillemard BJ, et al. A Discussion On The Open-Air Or Hygienic Treatment Of Consumption.” The British Medical Journal 1898; 2 (1970): 946-9. Available at: JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20256097. [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
35. Daniel TM. The history of tuberculosis. Respiratory medicine 2006; 100(11): 1862-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2006.08.006
36. Daniel TM. Leon Charles Albert Calmette and BCG vaccine. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2005; 9:205-6. Available at: http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/iuatld/10273719/v9n9/s2.pdf?expires=1592539392&id=0000&titleid=3764&checksum=0991A219B4D82A72E62DBC7A6E90FE06 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
37. Calmette A. On preventive vaccination of the new-born against tuberculosis by B.C.G. Br J Tuberc 1928; 22: 161-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0366-0850(28)80052-4
38. Davies TW, Davies M. Mass radiography in Wales. Experience with a mobile unit. Br J Tuberc Dis Chest 1945; 391: 2-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0366-0869(45)80004-7
39. Comstock GW. The international tuberculosis campaign: a pioneering venture in mass vaccination and research. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 19: 528–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinids/19.3.528
40. Marx FM, Skachkova E I, Son IMet al. Die Kontrolle der Tuberkulose in den Nachfolgestaaten der Sowjetunion am Beispiel Russlands. Pneumologie 2009; 63(05): 253-60. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0028-1119571
41. Schatz A, Bugie E, Waksman SA. Streptomycin, a substance exhibiting antibiotic activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Proc Exp Biol Med 1944; 55: 66-9. https://doi.org/10.3181%2F00379727-55-14461
42. Weitzman D, de Wend Cayley FE, Wingfield AL. Streptomycin in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Brit J Tuberc Dis Chest 1950; 44: 98-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0366-0869(50)80004-7
43. Fogel N. Tuberculosis: a disease without boundaries. Tuberculosis2015; 95(5): 527-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tube.2015.05.017
44. Keshavjee S, Farmer P. Tuberculosis, drug, resistance, and the history of modern medicine. N Engl J Med 2012; 367(10): 931e6 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1205429
45. Comas I, Gagneux S. The past and future of tuberculosis research. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5(10): e1000600. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000600 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
46. World Health Organization. Global tuberculosis report 2014. World Health Organization, 2014 Available at https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/137094 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
47. STOP TB Partnership. Legal environment assessments for tuberculosis: an operational guide. Geneva, Switzerland: Stop TB Partnership, 2017. Available at: http://www.stoptb.org/assets/documents/communities/StopTB_TB%20LEA%20DRAFT_FINAL_Sept%2027.pdf [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
48. Global tuberculosis report 2016. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/250441/1/9789241565394-eng.pdf?ua=1 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
49. Out of step 2015: TB policies in 24 countries. Geneva: Médecins Sans Frontières and Stop TB Partnership; 2015. Available at: https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/sites/usa/files/tb_report_out_of_step_eng_2015 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
50. World Health Organization. The end TB strategy. World Health Organization, 2015. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331326/WHO-HTM-TB-2015.19-eng.pdf [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
51. Saunders MJ, Evans CA. COVID-19, tuberculosis, and poverty: preventing a perfect storm. Eur Respir J 2020; in press. https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01348-2020
52. Glaziou P. Predicted impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on global tuberculosis deaths in 2020. Epidemiology 2020 May 4. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.28.20079582
53. WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. 2020. Available at: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019 [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
54. IFRC, UNICEF, WHO. Social Stigma associated with COVID-19. A guide to preventing and addressing social stigma. 2020. Available at: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/covid19-stigma-guide.pdf [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
55. WHO Guidelines on tuberculosis infection prevention and control, 2019 update (WHO/CDS/TB/2019.1). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2019. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/311259/9789241550512-eng.pdf [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
56. WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Infection prevention and control. WASH. Available at: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/infection-prevention-and-control [Accessed on 27/12/2020].
Published
2025/12/22
Section
Pregledni rad / Review article