Resisting Arrest: Analysis of Different Prone Body Positions on Time to Stand and Engage
Prone Body Positions and Time to Stand
Keywords:
apprehension, civilian, detainee, law enforcement
Abstract
An isolated police officer executing an arrest can be placed in a dangerous situation should the subject become non-compliant. Further research is needed to ascertain the position that a subject can be placed in that takes the longest time to rise from the ground. Twenty-four college-aged participants (15 men, 9 women) were recruited for this study. Four prone positions were examined in one session: hands hidden under the chest (PHC); arms perpendicular to the torso and palms of the hand facing up (PPU); arms perpendicular to the torso, palms of the hand facing up, with ankles crossed on the ground (PPUAC); and arms perpendicular to the torso, palms of the hand facing up, with ankles crossed but elevated toward the lower back (PACKB). The order of these positions was randomized amongst participants. Participants were instructed to rise to an athletic position from each position as quickly as possible, with the movements recorded by a video camera. Times were calculated via a frame-by-frame analysis using motion analysis software from movement initiation until participants were standing. A 2 (sex) x 4 (position) repeated measures ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc calculated between-position differences. There was a significant ANOVA for position (p=0.003) but not sex (p=0.415). The PACKB position was significantly slower than the PHC and PPUAC positions (p≤0.045) and had the slowest movement time to stand (~2.041 s). As reaction time could influence an officer’s safety, the PACKB position required the most time for a subject to stand and potentially engage an officer.
References
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Berrien County Sheriff's Department. (2003). Arrest and Search Techniques Study Guide. https://www.berriencounty.org/DocumentCenter/View/1023/Law-Enforcement-Exploring-Arrest-and-Search-Techniques-Study-Guide-2003-PDF
Blair, J. P., Pollock, J., Montague, D., Nichols, T., Curnutt, J., & Burns, D. (2011). Reasonableness and reaction time. Police Quarterly, 14(4), 323-343. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611111423737
Blake, D., & Bartel, L. (2018). Holster and handgun: Does equipment effect response time? . Law Enforcement Executive Forum, 18(2), 39-47.
Campbell, A., Roelofs, A., Davey, P., & Straker, L. (2013). Response time, pistol fire position variability, and pistol draw success rates for hip and thigh holsters. Human Factors, 55(2), 425-434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720812453466
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). Body Measurements. Retrieved August 2 from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/body-measurements.htm
Decker, A., Hilton, B., Dawes, J., Lockie, R., & Orr, R. M. (2022). Physiological demands of common occupational tasks among Australian police officers: A descriptive analysis. Annals of Work Exposures and Health, 66(7), 960–966. https://doi.org/10.1093/annweh/wxac012
Decker, A., Orr, R. M., Pope, R., & Hinton, B. (2016). Physiological demands of law enforcement occupational tasks in Australian police officers. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning, 24(6), 78-79.
Ebben, W. P., Vanderzanden, T., Wurm, B. J., & Petushek, E. J. (2010). Evaluating plyometric exercises using time to stabilization. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(2), 300-306. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181cbaadd
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Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., Wang, Z., & Ross, R. (2000). Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18–88 yr. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89(1), 81-88.
Johnson, T. M., Brown, L. E., Coburn, J. W., Judelson, D. A., Khamoui, A. V., Tran, T. T., & Uribe, B. P. (2010). Effect of four different starting stances on sprint time in collegiate volleyball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(10), 2641-2646. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181f159a3
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Lockie, R., Callaghan, S., Jeffriess, M., & Luczo, T. (2016). Dynamic stability as measured by time to stabilization does not relate to change-of-direction speed. Facta Universitatis, Series Physical Education and Sport, 14(2), 179-191.
Lockie, R. G., Dawes, J. J., Orr, R. M., & Dulla, J. M. (2020a). Recruit fitness standards from a large law enforcement agency: Between-class comparisons, percentile rankings, and implications for physical training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(4), 934-941. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000003534
Lockie, R. G., Murphy, A. J., Schultz, A. B., Knight, T. J., & Janse de Jonge, X. A. K. (2012a). The effects of different speed training protocols on sprint acceleration kinematics and muscle strength and power in field sport athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 26(6), 1539-1500.
Lockie, R. G., Orr, R. M., Moreno, M. R., Dawes, J. J., & Dulla, J. M. (2019). Time spent working in custody influences Work Sample Test Battery performance of Deputy Sheriffs compared to recruits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(7), 1108. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071108
Lockie, R. G., Pope, R. P., Saaroni, O., Dulla, J. M., Dawes, J. J., & Orr, R. M. (2020b). Job-specific physical fitness changes measured by the Work Sample Test Battery within deputy sheriffs between training academy and their first patrol assignment. International Journal of Exercise Science, 13(4), 1262-1274.
Lockie, R. G., Schultz, A. B., Callaghan, S. J., & Jeffriess, M. D. (2014). The effects of traditional and enforced stopping speed and agility training on multidirectional speed and athletic performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(6), 1538-1551. http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/publishahead/The_Effects_of_Traditional_and_Enforced_Stopping.97603.aspx
Lockie, R. G., Vickery, W. M., & Janse de Jonge, X. A. K. (2012b). Kinematics of the typical beach flags start for young adult sprinters. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 11(3), 444-451.
McKinnon, C. D., Callaghan, J. P., & Dickerson, C. R. (2011). Field quantification of physical exposures of police officers in vehicle operation. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 17(1), 61-68. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2011.11076870
Mona, G. G., Chimbari, M. J., & Hongoro, C. (2019). A systematic review on occupational hazards, injuries and diseases among police officers worldwide: Policy implications for the South African Police Service. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology, 14(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12995-018-0221-x
Nor Adnan, N. M., Ab Patar, M. N. A., Lee, H., Yamamoto, S.-I., Jong-Young, L., & Mahmud, J. (2018). Biomechanical analysis using Kinovea for sports application. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 342, 012097. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/342/1/012097
Orr, R., Canetti, E. F. D., Pope, R., Lockie, R. G., Dawes, J. J., & Schram, B. (2023). Characterization of injuries suffered by mounted and non-mounted police officers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 1144. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021144
Orr, R. M., Stierli, M., Amabile, M. L., & Wilkes, B. (2013). The impact of a structured reconditioning program on the physical attributes and attitudes of injured police officers. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning, 21(4), 42-47.
Peace Officer Standards and Training. (2022). Learning Domain 33 Arrest and Control Version 5.1. Retrieved September 27 from https://post.ca.gov/portals/0/post_docs/basic_course_resources/workbooks/LD_33_V-5.1.pdf
Puig-Diví, A., Escalona-Marfil, C., Padullés-Riu, J. M., Busquets, A., Padullés-Chando, X., & Marcos-Ruiz, D. (2019). Validity and reliability of the Kinovea program in obtaining angles and distances using coordinates in 4 perspectives. PLoS One, 14(6), e0216448. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216448
Shishov, N., Elabd, K., Komisar, V., Chong, H., & Robinovitch, S. N. (2021). Accuracy of Kinovea software in estimating body segment movements during falls captured on standard video: Effects of fall direction, camera perspective and video calibration technique. PLoS One, 16(10), e0258923. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258923
World Medical Association. (1997). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki. Recommendations guiding physicians in biomedical research involving human subjects. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277(11), 925-926.
