Artificial Intelligence in Criminal Justice: Predictive Tools, Evidentiary Challenges, and Human Rights Implications
Keywords:
AI in criminal law, algorithmic evidence, risk assessment tools, predictive policing, fair trial, legal safeguards, procedural rights.
Abstract
Integrating artificial intelligence (AI) technologies into criminal justice systems introduces both transformative opportunities and profound legal dilemmas. This paper critically examines the use of AI in crime prediction, risk assessment, evidence analysis, and sentencing, with particular attention to its impact on fundamental procedural rights. Focusing on predictive policing algorithms, facial recognition systems, and AI-assisted evidence review, the research explores how these tools reshape police, prosecutorial, and judicial discretion. Key challenges include transparency, explainability, and risks of systemic bias or “automated justice,” contrasted with constitutional guarantees such as the presumption of innocence, the right to a fair trial, and the principle of legality. The study concludes that while AI can enhance efficiency and accuracy, its uncritical adoption may jeopardize essential human rights protections unless accompanied by robust procedural safeguards. Artificial intelligence should serve as an instrument of human progress, not as a substitute for human judgment.
References
References
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Ehsanpour, S. R. (2025). The Importance and Role of Artificial Intelligence in Crime Prevention. Applied criminology research, 3(7), 59-80. https://doi.org/10.22034/aqcr.2025.2054758.1053
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Kosevaliska, Olga (2023) Ethnic and racial profiling in criminal cases (as part of non-discrimination). In: Sustainability and Law - optional course, Miskolc, Hungary. (Unpublished)
Mugari, I., & Obioha, E. E. (2021). Predictive policing and crime control in the United States of America and Europe: Trends in a decade of research and the future of predictive policing. Social Sciences, 10(6), 234. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10060234
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U.S. Department of Justice. (2024, December 3). Artificial intelligence and criminal justice: Final report. Washington, DC.
United Nations. (1966, 16 December). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. https://treaties.un.org/doc/treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006-17%20am/ch_iv_04.pdf
Završnik, A. (2020). Criminal justice, artificial intelligence systems, and human rights. ERA Forum, 20(567–583).
Završnik, A. (2021). Algorithmic Governance and Governance of Algorithms. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Zedner, L. (2007). Pre-crime and post-criminology? Theoretical Criminology, 11(2), 261–281.
Zhang, S. (2022). AI in China’s judicial system: Efficiency at what cost? Asian Journal of Law and Technology, 15(4), 210–214.
Amnesty International. (2018). Trapped in the Matrix: Secrecy, stigma, and bias in the Met’s gangs database. Amnesty International UK.
Baraniuk, C. (2018, November 26). Exclusive: UK police want AI to stop violent crime before it happens. New Scientist.
Bennett Moses, L. (2023). Oversight of police intelligence: A complex web, but is it enough? Osgoode Hall Law Journal, 60(2), 289–324. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4248480
Bhatt, H., Bahuguna, R., Swami, S., Singh, R., Gehlot, A., Akram, S. V., Gupta, L. R., Thakur, A. K., Priyadarshi, N., & Twala, B. (2024). Integrating industry 4.0 technologies for the administration of courts and justice dispensation—a systematic review. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11, Article 1076. (Open access).
Borgesano, F. (2025). Artificial intelligence and justice: A systematic literature review and future research perspectives on Justice 5.0. European Journal of Innovation Management, 28(11). (Open access).
Calo, R. (2017). Artificial intelligence policy: A primer and roadmap. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3015350 .
Couchman, H. (2019). Policing by machine: Predictive policing and the threats to our rights. Liberty.
Council of Europe. (1950, 4 November). European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (as amended). https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/convention_eng.pdf
Council of Europe. (2018, December 4). European Ethical Charter on the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Judicial Systems and their environment. European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ). https://rm.coe.int/ethical-charter-en-for-publication-4-december-2018/16808f699c
Da Costa-Abreu, M., & Silva, B. (2020). A critical analysis of ‘Law 4.0’: The use of automation and artificial intelligence and their impact on the judicial landscape of Brazil. Revista de Direitos Fundamentais e Tributação, 1(3), 1–16. (Accepted manuscript).
Das, A., & Rad, P. (2020). Opportunities and Challenges in Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI): A Survey. Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Cornell University. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2006.11371
de Araújo, V. S., de Paiva, A., & Porto, F. R. (2022). O futuro da Justiça e o Mundo 4.0 [The future of justice and the World 4.0]. Revista do Ministério Público do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, (84).
Diver L.E.,(2019) ‘Digisprudence: The Affordance of Legitimacy in Code-as-Law’. Ph.D. thesis, University of Edinburgh. https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/36567.
Ehsanpour, S. R. (2025). The Importance and Role of Artificial Intelligence in Crime Prevention. Applied criminology research, 3(7), 59-80. https://doi.org/10.22034/aqcr.2025.2054758.1053
EUCPN (2022). Artificial intelligence and predictive policing: Risks and challenges. Brussels: European Crime Prevention Network.
Ferguson, A. G. (2017). The Rise of Big Data Policing: Surveillance, Race, and the Future of Law Enforcement. NYU Press.
Gerstner, D. (2018). Predictive policing in the context of residential burglary: An empirical illustration on the basis of a pilot project in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. European Journal for Security Research. 115–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41125-018-0033-0
Gless, S., Silverman, E., & Weigend, T. (2021). If robots cause harm, who is to blame? Criminal Law Forum, 32, 1–32
Goodman, B., & Flaxman, S. (2017). European Union regulations on algorithmic decision-making and a “right to explanation.” AI Magazine, 38(3), 50–57
Grimm, P. W., Grossman, M. R., & Cormack, G. V. (2021). Artificial intelligence as evidence. Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property, 19(1), 10–105.
Gstrein, O. J., Bunnik, A., & Zwitter, A. (2019). Ethical, legal and social challenges of predictive policing. Católica Law Review: Direito Penal, 3(3), 77–98. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3447158
Hardyns, W., Rummens, A. Predictive Policing as a New Tool for Law Enforcement? Recent Developments and Challenges. Eur J Crim Policy Res 24, 201–218 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-017-9361-2
Hildebrandt, M. (2020). Law for Computer Scientists and Other Folk. Oxford University Press
Jansen, F. (2018). Data-driven policy in the context of Europe. Cardiff University, Data Justice Lab.
König, P. D., & Krafft, T. D. (2021). Evaluating the evidence in algorithmic evidence-based decision-making: the case of US pretrial risk assessment tools. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 33(3), 359–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2020.1849932
Kosevaliska, O. (2015). The ‘Equality Of Arms’ In Macedonian Criminal Procedure. SEEU Review, 11(1), 2015. 123-130. https://doi.org/10.1515/seeur-2015-0015
Kosevaliska, O., Poposka, Ž., & Maksimova, E. (2024). Prevalence of hate crime and hate incidents in municipalities in North Macedonia. In The UN Sustainable Development Goals and provision of security, responses to crime and security threats and fair criminal justice system (pp. 91–121). University of Maribor Press. ISBN 978-961-286-884-0 .
Kosevaliska, Olga (2023) Ethnic and racial profiling in criminal cases (as part of non-discrimination). In: Sustainability and Law - optional course, Miskolc, Hungary. (Unpublished)
Mugari, I., & Obioha, E. E. (2021). Predictive policing and crime control in the United States of America and Europe: Trends in a decade of research and the future of predictive policing. Social Sciences, 10(6), 234. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10060234
Parkkavi, E., & Yadharthana, K. (2024). Artificial intelligence in criminal justice: Balancing efficiency with fairness and accountability. Indian Journal of Integrated Research in Law, 4(6), 483–491.
Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 on artificial intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) No 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1139 and (EU) 2019/2144 and Directives 2014/90/EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2016/798 (Artificial Intelligence Act). Official Journal of the European Union, L 168, 12 July 2024, 1–180. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1689
Sari, E., Rahman, A., Saputra, J., & Bon, A. T. (2021, November 3–5). Optimising and digitalising the technology-based electronic justice in the 4.0 era: A judicial reform. Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management (Monterrey, Mexico).
Situmeang, S. M. T., Harliyanto, R., Zulkarnain, P. D., Nahdi, U., & Nugroho, T. (2024). The role of artificial intelligence in criminal justice. Global International Journal of Innovative Research, 2(8).
State v. Loomis: Wisconsin Supreme Court Requires Warning Before Use of Algorithmic Risk Assessments in Sentencing. (2017). Harvard Law Review, 130(5), 1530. https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-130/state-v-loomis/
U.S. Department of Justice. (2024, December 3). Artificial intelligence and criminal justice: Final report. Washington, DC.
United Nations. (1966, 16 December). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. https://treaties.un.org/doc/treaties/1976/03/19760323%2006-17%20am/ch_iv_04.pdf
Završnik, A. (2020). Criminal justice, artificial intelligence systems, and human rights. ERA Forum, 20(567–583).
Završnik, A. (2021). Algorithmic Governance and Governance of Algorithms. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Zedner, L. (2007). Pre-crime and post-criminology? Theoretical Criminology, 11(2), 261–281.
Zhang, S. (2022). AI in China’s judicial system: Efficiency at what cost? Asian Journal of Law and Technology, 15(4), 210–214.
