ВЕРСКО-ПОЛИТИЧКИ СУКОБ ИЗМЕЂУ БУДИСТА И РОХИНЏА МУСЛИМАНА У МЈАНМАРУ
Sažetak
На простору југоисточне Азије одвија се сукоб између будистичке заједнице насељене на западном делу Индокине и муслиманске мањине – Рохинџа муслимана. Иако је овај сукоб у бити верски, он је најчешће означаван као међунационални, односно као једна врста грађанског рата. Овај рад има за циљ да представи верску страну овог сукоба те и да укаже на очигледну погрешку при квалификовању самог сукоба као искључиво међунационалног а не међуверског. С обзиром на значајан степен прожетости религије и политике у овом конкретном случају, из угла политикологије религије ће бити анализиране позиције обе стране у сукобу, њихове основне идеје, циљеви и промотери као и значај међународног фактора. Први део рада послужиће за представљање овог верско-политичког сукоба, како кроз његов историјски развој тако и кроз тренутно стање. У другом делу рада биће анализирано учешће верских и верско-политичких организација у овом сукобу. Трећи део рада биће посвећен анализи утицаја међународног фактора на ескалацију и (потенцијално) разрешење овог сукоба. Коначно, последње поглавље ће послужити изношењу увида до којих се дошло овим истраживањем те ће бити указано на потенцијална решења за његово успешно превазилажење.
Reference
Вукелић, Милан. 2019. „Исламски екстремизам у југоисточној Азији.” Војно дело 6: 9–23. doi: 10.5937/vojdelo1906009V.
Јевтић, Мирољуб. 2009. Политикологија религије. Београд: Центар за проучавање религије и верску толеранцију.
Јевтић, Мирољуб. 2014. „Верски ратови у 21. веку? Промашаји политичке науке.” Национални интерес 20 (2): 177–197.
969 Movement. 2013. “About.” 969 Movement. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. http://969movement.org/about/
Al Jazeera Balkans. 2017. „Izrael naoružava Mjanmar u jeku nasilja nad Rohindžama.” Al Jazeera Balkans. Последњи приступ: 11. децембар 2022. http://balkans.aljazeera.net/vijesti/izrael-naoruzava-mijanmar-u-jeku-nasilja-nad-rohinjama
Al Jazeera. 2017. “UN Chief Calls on Myanmar to Eng Rohingya Violence.” Al Jazeera, 5 September 2017. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/09/chief-calls-myanmar-rohingya-violence-170905191805342.html
Al Jazeera. 2018. “Who Are the Rohingya?” Al Jazeera, 18. April 2018. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/08/rohingya-muslims-170831065142812.html
Amnesty International. 2018. “Myanmar: New Evidence Reveals Rohingya Armed Group Massacred Scores in Rakhine State.” Amnesty International, 22. May 2018. last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/05/myanmar-new-evidence-reveals-rohingya-armed-group-massacred-scores-in-rakhine-state
Ari Gross, Judah. 2017. “Amid Uproar, Israel Halts Arms Sales to Myanmar-Report.” Times of Israel. 1. November 2017. https://www.timesofisrael.com/amid-uproar-israel-halts-arms-sales-to-myanmar-report/.
Azeem, Ibrahim. 2016. The Rohingyas: Inside Myanmar’s Hidden Genocide. London: Hurst & Company.
Bangkok Post. 2016. “Islamist Fears Rise in Rohingya Linked Violence.” Bangkok Post. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/asia/1111481/islamist-fears-rise-in-rohingya-linked-violence
BBC. 2018. “Rohingya Crisis: Bangladesh and Myanmar Agree Repatriation Timeframe.” BBC, 16. January 2018. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42699602,
Berlinger, Joshua, and Delia Gallagher. 2017.“Pope Francis: The Presence of God Today is Also Called Rohingya.” CNN. Last accessed: 11. December 2022.https://edition.cnn.com/2017/12/01/asia/pope-bangladesh-myanmar-intl/index.html
Biver, Emilie. 2014. “Religious Nationalism: Myanmar and the Role of Buddhism in Anti-Muslim Narratives (An Analysis of Myanmar’s Ethnic Conflicts Through the Lens of Buddhist Nationalism).” Master’s Thesis. Lund University: Department of Political Science.
Burmese Rohingya Organisation United Kingdom [BROUK]. 2014. Myanmar’s 1982 Citizenship Law and Rohingya. London: Burmese Rohingya Organisation United Kingdom.
Cheesman, Nick. 2017. “How in Myanmar ‘National Races’ Came to Surpass Citizenship and Exclude Rohingya.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 47 (3): 461–483. doi: 10.1080/00472336.2017.1297476.
Cimino, Ilaria, and Hanno Schedler. 2014. The Rohingya People in Burma: The World’s Most Persecuted Minority. Gottingen: Society for Threatened Peoples.
Colombo Telegraph. 2013. “Full Text of the Banned Time Story – The Face of Buddhist Terror”. 3. July 2013. Colombo Telegraph. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/full-text-of-the-banned-time-story-the-face-of-buddhist-terror/
Congress.gov. 2013. “H. Res. 418–Urging the Government of Burma to End the Persecution of the Rohingya People and Respect Internationally Recognized Human Rights for All Ethnic and Religious Minority Groups Within Burma.” Congress.gov. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.congress.gov/bill/113th-congress/house-resolution/418.
Department of Population. 2016. The Union Report: Religion (Census Report Volume 2-C). The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census. Nay Pyi Taw: Department of Population, Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population.
Economist. 2017. “Militant Buddhist Monks are Stoking Sectarian Tensions in Myanmar.” Economist, 10. August 2017. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/08/10/militant-buddhist-monks-are-stoking-sectarian-tensions-in-myanmar.
Finnegan, Conor. 2019. “57 Countries Sue Myanmar Over Reported Genocide of Rohingya in Historic Lawsuit.” ABC News. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/57-countries-sue-myanmar-reported-genocide-rohingya-historic/story?id=66893262
Frazer, Owen. 2015. “International Engagement on Buddhist-Muslim Relations in Myanmar.” The Review of Faith & International Affairs 13(4): 82–86. doi: 10.1080/15570274.2015.1104963.
Habulan, Angelica, et al. 2018. “Southeast Asia: Philippines, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore, Online Extremism.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 10 (1): 7–30.
Hasnat Milton, Abul, et al. 2017. “Trapped in Statelessness: Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh.” Environmental Research and Public Health 14: 1–8. doi: 10.3390/ijerph14080942.
Hindstrom, Hanna. 2012. “Burma's Monks Call for Muslim Community to be Shunned.” The Independent, 24. July 2012. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/burmas-monks-call-for-muslim-community-to-be-shunned-7973317.html.
Hofman, Lennart. 2016. “Meet the Most Persecuted People in the World.” The Correspondent, 25. February 2016. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://thecorrespondent.com/4087/meet-the-most-persecuted-people-in-the-world/293299468-71e6cf33.
Holmes, Oliver. 2017. “Thailand Convicts Traffickers After 2015 Mass Graves Discovery.” The Guadian, 19 July 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/19/thailand-convicts-dozens-of-traffickers-after-mass-graves-discovery.
Human Rights Watch. n.d. “Historical Background.” Human Rights Watch. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/burma/burm005-01.htm.
Iftekharul, Bashar. 2019. “Rohingya Crisis and Western Myanmar’s Evolving Threat Landscape.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 11 (6): 14–18.
International Crisis Group [ICG]. 2014. Myanmar: The Politics of Rakhine State. Asia Report No. 261. October 2014.
Iqbal, Mohammad. 2019. Rohingya Refugee Crisis Deepens: Are the Two Neighbouring Nations Heading for a Possible Military Confrontation? Melbourne: RMIT University.
Kingston, N. Lindsey. 2015. “Protecting the World’s Most Persecuted: the Responsibility to Protect and Burma’s Rohingya Minority.” The International Journal of Human Rights 19 (8): 1163–1175. doi: 10.1080/13642987.2015.1082831.
Knuters, Simon. 2018. “Political Buddhism and the Exclusion of Rohingya in Myanmar: Exploring Targeted Religious Nationalism Using Myanmar’s Muslim Rohingya Minority as a Case Study.” Master’s Thesis. Uppsala University: Department of Theology.
Middle East Institute. 2017. “Waves of Genocidal Terror against Rohingyas by Myanmar and the Resultant Exodus Since 1978.” Middle East Institute. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.mei.edu/publications/waves-genocidal-terror-against-rohingyas-myanmar-and-resultant-exodus-1978.
New Straits Times. 2018. “Myanmar Forces Conduct ‘Clearance Operations’ After Two Killed in Rakhine State.” 20. December 2018. New Straits Times. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.nst.com.my/world/2018/12/442553/myanmar-forces-conduct-clearance-operations-after-two-killed-rakhine-state.
News24. 2017. “As Myanmar Muslims Flee Crackdown, US is Wary of Involvement.” News24. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.news24.com/World/News/as-myanmar-muslims-flee-crackdown-us-is-wary-of-involvement-20170909, last accessed 11 December 2022.
Nichols, Michelle. 2018. “China Fails to Stop U.N. Security Council Myanmar Briefing.” Reuters, 24. October 2018. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-un/china-fails-in-bid-to-stop-u-n-security-council-myanmar-briefing-idUSKCN1MY2QU.
Pum, Za Mang. 2016. “Buddhist Nationalism and Burmese Christianity.” Studies in World Christianity 22 (2): 148–167. doi: 10.3366/swc.2016.0147.
Sagolj, Damir. 2017. “Rohingya Widows Find Safe Haven in Bangladesh Camp.” Reuters, 7. December 2017. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-widows/rohingya-widows-find-safe-haven-in-bangladesh-camp-idUSKBN1E136I.
Saine, Cindy. 2017. “US VP Condemns ‘Terrible Savagery’ Against Rohingya Muslims.” Voice of America, 7. December 2017. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.voanews.com/a/us-to-provide-32-million-dollars-in-humanitarian-aid-to-rohingya-muslims/4036793.html.
Sakhawat, Adil. 2017. “Exclusive: Is This the Final Confrontation for the Rohingya.” Dhaka Tribune, 27. August 2017. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.dhakatribune.com/world/south-asia/2017/08/27/final-confrontation-rohingyas/.
Slodkowski, Antoni. 2015. “Myanmar Signs Ceasefire with Eight Armed Groups.” Reuters. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-politics/myanmar-signs-ceasefire-with-eight-armed-groups-idUSKCN0S82MR20151015.
South, Ashley. 2011. “Burma's Longest War: Anatomy of the Karen Conflict.” The Transnational Institute [TNI]. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.tni.org/en/briefing/burmas-longest-war-anatomy-karen-conflict.
Steckman, Laura. 2015. “Myanmar at the Crossroads: The Shadow of Jihadist Extremism.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 7 (4): 10–16.
Szep, Jason. 2013. “Special Report: Buddhist Monks Incite Muslim Killings in Myanmar.” Reuters. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-violence-specialreport/special-report-buddhist-monks-incite-muslim-killings-in-myanmar-idUSBRE9370AP20130408
Tanzimuddin Khan, Mohammad, and Saima Ahmed. 2019. “Dealing with the Rohingya Crisis: The Relevance of the General Assembly and R2P.” Asian Journal of Comparative Politics 5 (2): 1–23. doi: 10.1177/2057891119868312.
The Daily Star. 2013. “Religious radicals Driving Myanmar Unrest: Experts.” The Daily Star, 1. April 2013. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.thedailystar.net/news/religious-radicals-driving-myanmar-unrest-experts.
The Guardian. 2015. “South-East Asia Migrant Crisis: Gambia Offers to Resettle All Rohingya Refugees.” The Guardian, 21. May 2015. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/21/south-east-asia-migrant-crisis-gambia-offers-to-resettle-all-rohingya-refugees.
The Guardian. 2017. “China and Russia Oppose UN Resolution on Rohingya.” The Guardian, 24. December 2017. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/24/china-russia-oppose-un-resolution-myanmar-rohingya-muslims.
The Irrawaddy. 2013. “Buddhist Committee's 969 Prohibitions Prompts Meeting of Movement Backers.” The Irrawaddy, 8. April 2013. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. http://www.irrawaddy.org/burma/buddhist-committees-969-prohibitions-prompts-meeting-of-movement-backers.html.
The Irrawaddy. 2015. “Lower House Approves Two Race and Religion Bills.” The Irrawaddy, 20. March 2015. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/lower-house-approves-two-race-and-religion-bills.html.
The Nation Thailand. 2017. “Resolving Rohingya Crisis: Europe Stands by Bangladesh.” The Nation Thailand. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. http://www.nationmultimedia.com/detail/asean-plus/30332034.
The New York Times. 2017. “At Least 6,700 Rohingya Died in Myanmar Crackdown, Aid Group Says.” The New York Times. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/14/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-deaths.html.
Trihartono, Agus. 2018. “Chapter 1: Myanmar’s Worsening Rohingya Crisis: A Call for Responsibility to Protect and ASEAN’s Response.” In Sustainable Future for Human Security, ed. B. Mc Lellan, 3–16. Singapore: Springer Nature.
United Nations [UN]. 2017. Mission Report of OHCHR Rapid Response Mission to Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. New York: United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner.
USA Today. 2001. “Why the Taliban are Destroying Buddhas?” USA Today, 21. May 2001. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/science/archaeology/2001-03-22-afghan-buddhas.htm
Vandenbrink, Rachel. 2014. “Myanmar Buddhist Monks Launch Group for Defending Religion.” Radio Free Asia, 15. January 2014. Last accessed: 11. December 2022. http://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/buddhist-congress-01152014180734.html/.
Wade, Francis. 2017. Myanmar’s Enemy Within: Buddhist Violence and the Making of Muslim’Other’. London: Zed Books Ltd.
Warzone Initiatives [WI]. 2015. Rohingya Briefing Report. Warzone Initiatives
Yegar, Moshe. 1972. The Muslims of Burma: A Study of a Minority Group. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.