IS ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS UNDER DURESS?
Sažetak
Academic freedom is considered a cornerstone of democratic higher education, yet its institutional foundations are becoming increasingly fragile. This article examines how financial austerity and ideological contestation interact to reshape academic freedom. It argues that formal constitutional and supranational safeguards coexist with subtle but cumulative mechanisms of erosion, including performance-based funding, managerial governance, politicized scrutiny of specific disciplines, and transnational ideological interference. While Belgium and the Netherlands still perform comparatively well in Europe, the convergence of budgetary constraints and ideological polarization generates chilling effects, self-censorship and strategic compliance. The article concludes that academic freedom cannot be assumed to be secure by default. It calls for renewed safeguards, combined with institutional cultures and international alliances that strengthen the structural resilience of academic freedom.
Reference
Bibliography
Altbach, P. G., 2001, Academic freedom: International realities and challenges, Higher Education, Vol. 41, Nos. 1–2, pp. 205–219.
Antonowizc, D., Jongbloed, B., 2015, University Governance Reforms in the Netherlands, Austria and Portugal: Lessons for Poland, Warsaw, Ernst & Young.
Barbato, J.-C., La liberté académique dans l’ordre juridique de l’Union européenne, in: Maubernard, C., Platon, S., Tinière, R., (eds.), 2025, Les mutations de la protection de la liberté d’expression dans l’Union européenne, Brussels, Bruylant, pp. 301–329.
Boer, H. de, Jongbloed, B., Huisman, J., 2020, Governance reforms and university autonomy in the Netherlands, Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 45, No. 8, pp. 1599–1612.
Frangville, V. et al., (ed.), 2021, La liberté académique. Enjeux et menaces, Brussels, Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles.
Karran, T., 2007, Academic Freedom in Europe: A Preliminary Comparative Analysis, Higher Education Policy, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 289–313.
Kosta, V., Ceran, O. M., 2025, Academic Freedom Monitor 2024: Overview of de jure academic freedom protection, Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS), Scientific Foresight Unit (STOA), (https://scholarlypublications. universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/4255191, 20. 11. 2025).
Monard, E. et al., 2023, Vrij onderzoek noodzakelijk voor maatschappelijke uitdagingen. Ruimte voor wetenschap op initiatief van de onderzoeker [Free academic research on societal challenges. Room for science on the initiative of the researcher], KVAB Position Paper 82, pp. 1–110, (https://kvab.be/sites/default/rest/ blobs/3680/tw_vrij%20onderzoek%20noodzakelijk.pdf, 20. 11. 2025).
Mutua, A. et al., 2024, The War on Higher Education, UCLA Law Review, Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 1–36.
Roberts Lyer, K., 2025, Academic Freedom as a Human Right: Academic Free- dom in Europe, VerfBlog, 17 October, (https://verfassungsblog.de/academic-free-dom-humanright, 20. 11. 2025).
Soeharno, J., 2023, En/En. Tegen ideologische begrenzing van academische vrij- heid [And/And. Against an ideological limitation of academic freedom], Filosofie&Praktijk, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 32–49.
Vandewalle, J. et al., 2025, Trust in Science and the Scientist, KVAB Position Paper 88b, pp. 1–46, (https://kvab.be/sites/default/rest/blobs/4272/tw_Trust%20in%20 science%20and%20the%20scientist.pdf, 20. 11. 2025).
Verhaeghe, P.-P., 2023, The academic intimidation and harassment of scientists at Flemish universities in Belgium, Brussels, VUB.
Vrielink, J. et al., 2023, Challenges to academic freedom as a fundamental right, League of European Research Universities (LERU), Advice Paper No. 31, April 2023.
Legislative Sources
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, Official Journal C 364/01.
Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Official Journal C 326/47.
Constitution of Belgium, 1994, (https://www.senate.be/doc/const_nl.html, 20. 11. 2025).
Constitution of the Netherlands, 1815, (https://wetten.overheid.nl/ BWBR0001840/2023-02-22, 20. 11. 2025).
Council Recommendation (EU) 2021/2122 of 26 November 2021 on a Pact for Research and Innovation in Europe, OJ L, 2 December 2021.
Parlement de la Communauté française, 2024, Déclaration the politique communautaire 2024–2029: Avoir le courage de changer pur que l’avenir s’éclaire, (https://archive.pfwb.be/1000000020d90cd, 16. 7. 2024).
Vlaams Parlement, 2009, Decreet betreffende de organisatie en financiering van het wetenschaps– en innovatiebeleid, (https://codex.vlaanderen.be/Portals/Co- dex/documenten/1018085.html, 30. 4. 2009).
Case Law
CJEU, case C-66/18, Commission v. Hungary, Judgment of 6 October 2020, ECLI:EU:C:2020:792.
CJEU, joined cases C-156/21 and C-157/21, Hungary v. European Parliament and Council, Judgment of 16 February 2022, ECLI:EU:C:2022:97.
ECtHR, Başkaya and Okçuoğlu v. Turkey, Nos. 23536/94 and 24408/94, Judgment of 8 July 1999 (GC).
ECtHR, Sapan v. Turkey, No. 44102/04, Judgment of 8 July 2010.
ECtHR, Mustafa Erdoğan and others v. Turkey, Nos. 346/04 and 39779/04, Judgment of 27 May 2014.
Internet Sources
AAUP, 1940, 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure with 1970 Interpretive Comments, (https://www.aaup.org/reports-publications/ aaup-policies-reports/policy-statements/1940-statement-principles-academic, 20. 11. 2025).
AAUP, 2023, Academic Freedom and the Law, (https://www.aaup.org/sites/default/files/Academic%20Freedom%20Outline%20for%20Website.pdf, 20. 11. 2025).
Adviescommissie Bekostiging Hoger Onderwijs en Onderzoek, 2019, Rapport. Wissels om. Naar een transparante en evenwichtige bekostiging en meer samen- werking in hoger onderwijs en onderzoek [Report. Changing tracks. Towards a transparent and balanced funding and cooperation of and within higher educa- tion and research], May, The Hague, Xerox/OBT (https://open.overheid.nl/docu- menten/ronl-97d77dbb-0c58-410f-8aa5-f80e1412b88a/pdf, 20. 11. 2025).
Allea, 2025, Allea Statement on Threats to Academic Freedom and International Research Collaboration in the United States, February, (https://allea.org/portfo- lio-item/allea-statement-on-threats-to-academic-freedom-and-international-re-search-collaboration-in-the-united-states, 20. 11. 2025).
ARES, 2025, Les universités en action: adapter le soutien, renforcer l’intégration, défendre la liberté, June, (https://www.ares-ac.be/fr/les-universites-en-ac- tion-adapter-le-soutien-renforcer-l-integration-defendre-la-liberte, 3. 6. 2025).
Belleman, B. et al., 2025, Wetenschappers in heel Nederland geraakt door beleid Trump [Scientists in the whole of the Netherlands affected by Trump policy], De Groene Amsterdammer, May 14, (https://www.groene.nl/artikel/wetenschappers- in-heel-nederland-geraakt-door-beleid-trump, 14. 5. 2025).
Balme, S., 2025, Academic freedom: how to defend ‘the very condition of a living democracy’ in France and worldwide, The Conversation, 17 October, (https:// theconversation.com/academic-freedom-how-to-defend-the-very-condition-of- a-living-democracy-in-france-and-worldwide-267689, 17. 10. 2025).
Boeren, I., 2025, Sterft de academische vrijheid een stille dood? [Will academic freedom die a slow death?], EOS, (https://www.eoswetenschap.eu/algemeen/ sterft-de-academische-vrijheid-een-stille-dood, 8. 7. 2025).
CRef (Conseil des rectrices et recteurs francophones), 2025a, The universities of the Wallonia-Brussels Federation denounce the attacks on academic freedom in the United States, Press release, 17 March, (https://www.uclou- vain.be/system/files/uclouvain_assetmanager/groups/cms-editors-presse/ cp-mars-2025/20250317_Communique%CC%81%20CRef_atteintes%20%C3%A0%20la%20libert%C3%A9%20acad%C3%A9mique%20aux%20Etats%20 Unis_FR%20ENGL.pdf, 17. 3. 2025).
CRef, 2025b, Stand up for academic freedom: not a privilege, but one of the keys for a free society, Joint statement by the Rectors of the 10 Belgian universities,
July, (http://www.cref.be/communication/20250707_Academic%20freedom_statement.pdf, 7. 7. 2025).
EHEA, 2020, Rome Ministerial Communiqué – Annex I. Statement on Academic Freedom, 19 November, (https://ehea.info/Upload/Rome_Ministerial_Commu-
nique_Annex_I.pdf, 19. 11. 2020).
European Higher Education Area (EHEA), 2020, Rome Ministerial Communiqué, 19 November, (https://ehea.info/Upload/Rome_Ministerial_Communique.pdf, 19. 11. 2020).
European University Association (EUA), 2025, Europe must champion academic freedom and protect academics at risk, 20 June, (https://www.eua.eu/news/eua- news/europe-must-champion-academic-freedom-and-protect-academics-at-risk. html, 20. 6. 2025).
Jonge Academie, 2025, Deze regering holt het wetenschapsbeleid uit. Opinie over wetenschapsbeleid en financiering [This government is hollowing out science policy. Opinion on science policy and funding], De Standaard, 14 October, (https://www.jongeacademie.be/artikel/opinie-uithollen-wetenschapsbeleid.html, 14. 10. 2025).
Kinzelbach, K., Lindberg, S. I., Lott, L., Panaro, A. V., 2025, Academic Freedom Index Update 2025, Nürnberg, FAU Erlangen, (https://academic-freedom-index. net/research/Academic_Freedom_Index_Update_2025.pdf, 20. 11. 2025).
Kraak, H., 2021, Universiteiten beloofden dekolonisatie. Is er al iets bereikt, of zijn de effecten vooral ongewenst? [Universities promised decolonization. Has it been achieved or are the effects mostly unwanted?], De Volkskrant, 21 May, (https://www.volkskrant.nl/cs-b6651243, 21. 5. 2021).
Kuipers Munneke, P., 2023, Het slechte huwelijk tussen universiteit en fossiele industrie [The bad marriage between universities and fossil industry], NRC, 5 April, (https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2023/04/05/het-slechte-huwelijk-tussen-uni- versiteit-en-fossiele-industrie-a4161371, 20. 11. 2025).
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), 2025, Academic freedom in the Netherlands: response to current threats, (https://www.knaw.nl/en/pub- lications/academic-freedom-netherlands-response-current-threats, 20. 11. 2025).
RTBF, 2025, Après des entreprises, des universités belges reçoivent un questionnaire de l’ambassade étasunienne sur leur politique de diversité [After compa- nies, Belgian universities receive a questionnaire on their diversity policy], 8 May, (https://www.rtbf.be/article/apres-des-entreprises-des-universites-belges-re- coivent-un-questionnaire-de-l-ambassade-etasunienne-sur-leur-politique-de-di- versite-11543935, 8. 5. 2025).
Sachs, J. A., Young, J. C., 2024, America’s Censored Classrooms 2024. Refining the Art of Censorship, PEN America, (https://pen.org/report/americas-cen- sored-classrooms-2024, 20. 11. 2025).
Universiteiten van Nederland, 2025, Statement on Academic Freedom – The Rectors of the Dutch Universities, 30 May, (https://www.universiteiten- vannederland.nl/en/current/news/statement-on-academic-freedom-the-rec- tors-of-the-dutch-universities-2025, 30. 5. 2025).
Waele, L. de, 2025, Academische vrijheid is de zuurstof van een gezonde democratie [Free academic research provides the oxygen for a healthy democ- racy], Knack, 19 September, (https://www.knack.be/nieuws/belgie/onderwijs/ academische-vrijheid-is-de-zuurstof-van-een-gezonde-democratie, 19. 9. 2025).