Treatment of burn injury in children
Burn injury in children
Keywords:
burn injury, children, treatment
Abstract
Burns are one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in children. In order to reduce the side effects of burns, it is necessary to timely and adequately assess the degree of damage in the pediatric patients. This has proven to be useful in defining therapeutic procedures in children with this clinical condition. Adequate fluid replacement, relief of pain and anxiety, as well as other supportive therapy can significantly reduce the risk of mortality. The goal of this review is in better understanding of pathophysiological changes and assessment of severity of burn injury in pediatric patients, which may help in early implementation of appropriate therapeutic procedures and improvement of outcome of these patients.
References
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2. Armstrong M, Wheeler KK, Shi J et al. Epidemiology and trend of US pediatric burn hospitalizations, 2003–2016. Burns 2021; 47: 551-9. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2020.05.021.
3. Saritas A, Cakir ZG, Akçay MN et al. Predictors of mortality in childhood burns: an 8-year review. J Child Health Care 2014; 18: 84-95. doi: 10.1177/1367493512470575.
4. Agbenorku P, Agbenorku M, Fiifi-Yankson PK. Pediatric burns mortality risk factors in a developing country’s tertiary burns intensive care unit. Int J Burns Trauma 2013; 3: 151-8. PMID: 23875121 PMCID: PMC3712406.
5. Palmieri TL, Taylor S, Lawless M et al. Burn center volume makes a difference for burned children. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2015; 16: 319-24. doi: 10.1097/PCC.0000000000000366.
6. Rybarczyk MM, Schafer JM, Elm CM et al. A systematic review of burn injuries in low- and middle-income countries: Epidemiology in the WHO-defined African Region. Afr J Emerg Med 2017; 7: 30-7. doi: 10.1016/j.afjem.2017.01.006.
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8. Nassar JY, Al Qurashi AA, Albalawi I et al. Pediatric Burns: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Epidemiology, Gender Distribution, Risk Factors, Management, and Outcomes in Emergency Departments. Cureus 2023; 15: e49012. doi: 10.7759/cureus.49012.
9. Jeschke MG, Herndon DN. Burns in children: standard and new treatments. Lancet 2014; 383: 1168-78. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61093-4.
10. Lee CJ, Mahendraraj K, Houng A et al. Pediatric Burns: A Single Institution Retrospective Review of Incidence, Etiology, and Outcomes in 2273 Burn Patients (1995–2013). J Burn Care Res 2016; 37: e579–e585. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000362.
11. Van Balen NIM, Simon MH, Botman MB et al. Effectiveness of prevention programmes on the rate of burn injuries in children: a systematic review. Inj Prev 2024; 30: 68-74. doi: 10.1136/ip-2022-044827.
12. Strobel AM, Fey R. Emergency Care of Pediatric Burns. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2018; 36: 441-58. doi: 10.1016/j.emc.2017.12.011.
13. Hettiaratchy S, Dziewulski P. ABC of burns: pathophysiology and types of burns. BMJ 2004; 328: 1427-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.328.7453.1427.
14. Wolf SE, Debroy M, Herndon DN. The cornerstones and directions of pediatric burn care. Pediatr Surg Int 1997; 12: 312-20. doi: 10.1007/BF01076929.
15. Senel E, Kizilgun M, Akbiyik F et al. The evaluation of the adrenal and thyroid axes and glucose metabolism after burn injury in children. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2010; 23: 481-9. doi: 10.1515/jpem.2010.079.
16. Chan MM, Chan GM. Nutritional therapy for burns in children and adults. Nutrition 2009; 25: 261-9. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2008.10.011.Hart DW, Wolf SE, Mlcak R et al. Persistence of muscle catabolism after severe burn. Surgery 2000; 128: 312-9. doi: 10.1067/msy.2000.108059.
17. Partain KP, Fabia R, Thakkar RK. Pediatric burn care: new techniques and outcomes. Curr Opin Pediatr 2020; 32: 405-410. doi: 10.1097/MOP.0000000000000902.
18. Mathias E, Murthy SM. Pediatric Thermal Burns and Treatment: A Review of Progress and Future Prospects. Medicines (Basel) 2017; 4: 91. doi: 10.3390/medicines4040091.
19. Fitzpatrick JC, Cioffi WG Jr. Ventilatory support following burns and smoke-inhalation injury. Respir Care Clin N Am 1997; 3: 21-49. PMID: 9390901.
20. Sen S. Pediatric inhalation injury. Burns Trauma 2017; 5: 31. doi: 10.1186/s41038-017-0097-5.
21. Mc Niece WL, Dierdorf SF. The pediatric airway. Semin Pediatr Surg 2004; 13: 152-65. doi: 10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2004.04.008.
22. Legrand M, Barraud D, Constant I et al. Management of severe thermal burns in the acute phase in adults and children. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med 2020; 39: 253-67. doi: 10.1016/j.accpm.2020.03.006.
23. McLure M, Macneil F, Wood FM et al. A Rapid Review of Burns First Aid Guidelines: Is There Consistency Across International Guidelines? Cureus 2021; 13: e15779. doi: 10.7759/cureus.15779.
24. Rawlins JM, Khan AA, Shenton AF et al. Epidemiology and outcome analysis of 208 children with burns attending an emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care 2007; 23: 289-93. doi: 10.1097/01.pec.0000248698.42175.2b.
25. McCormack RA, La Hei ER, Martin HC. First-aid management of minor burns in children: a prospective study of children presenting to the Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney. Med J Aust 2003; 178: 31-3. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2003.tb05038.x.
26. Cuttle L, Kravchuk O, Wallis B et al. An Audit of First-Aid Treatment of Pediatric Burns Patients and Their Clinical Outcome Get access Arrow. J Burn Care Res 2009; 30: 1028-34. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181bfb7d1.
27. Nguyen ATM, Chamberlain K, Holland AJA. Paediatric chemical burns: a clinical review. Eur J Pediatr 2021; 180: 1359-1369. doi: 10.1007/s00431-020-03905-z.
28. Othman S, Sethi HK, Cohn JE et al. Craniofacial and neck burns in the pediatric population. Burns 2020; 46: 1225-31. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2020.03.001.
29. Sadideen H, D’Asta F, Moiemen N et al. Does overestimation of burn size in children requiring fluid resuscitation cause any harm? J Burn Care Res 2017;3 8: e546-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/BCR.0000000000000382.
30. Goverman J, Bittner EA, Friedstat JS et al. Discrepancy in initial pediatric burn estimates and its impact on fluid resuscitation. J Burn Care Res 2015;36:574-9. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000185.
31. Wachtel TL, Berry CC, Wachtel EE et al. The inter-rater reliability of estimating the size of burns from various burn area chart drawings. Burns 2000; 26: 156-70. doi: 10.1016/s0305-4179(99)00047-9.
32. Chan QE, Barzi F, Cheney L et al. Burn size estimation in children: still a problem. Emerg Med Australas 2012; 24: 181-6. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-6723.2011.01511.x.
33. Fidkowski CW, Fuzaylov G, Sheridan RL et al. Inhalation burn injury in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; Suppl 1: 147-54. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9592.2008.02884.x.
34. Baxter CR, Shires T. Physiological response to crystalloid resuscitation of severe burns. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1968; 150: 874-94. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1968.tb14738.x.
35. Dittrich MHM, de Carvalho WB, Lavado LE. Evaluation of the “Early” Use of Albumin in Children with Extensive Burns: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2016; 17: e280-6. doi: 10.1097/PCC.0000000000000728.
36. Warden GD. Burn shock resuscitation. World J Surg 1992; 16: 16-23. doi: 10.1007/BF02067109.
37. Huang PP, Stucky FS, Dimick AR et al. Hypertonic sodium resuscitation is associated with renal failure and death. Ann Surg 1995; 221: 543-54; discussion 554-7. doi: 10.1097/00000658-199505000-00012.
38. Sheridan RL. Burn Care for Children. Pediatr Rev 2018; 39: 273-86. doi: 10.1542/pir.2016-0179.
39. Steinvall I, Bak Z, Sjoberg F. Acute kidney injury is common, parallels organ dysfunction or failure, and carries appreciable mortality in patients with major burns: a prospective exploratory cohort study. Crit Care 2008; 12: R124. doi: 10.1186/cc7032.
40. Folkestad T, Brurberg KG, Nordhuus KM et al. Acute kidney injury in burn patients admitted to the intensive care unit: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care 2020; 24: 2. doi: 10.1186/s13054-019-2710-4.
41. Wu G, Xiao Y, Wang C et al. Risk Factors for Acute Kidney Injury in Patients With Burn Injury: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review. J Burn Care Res 2017; 38: 271-82. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000438.
42. Brusselaers N, Monstrey S, Colpaert K et al. Outcome of acute kidney injury in severe burns: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 2010; 36: 915-25. doi: 10.1007/s00134-010-1861-1.
43. Clark A, Neyra JA, Madni T et al. Acute kidney injury after burn. Burns 2017; 43: 898-908. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2017.01.023.
44. Palmieri T, Lavrentieva A, Greenhalgh D. An assessment of acute kidney injury with modified RIFLE criteria in pediatric patients with severe burns. Intensive Care Med 2009; 35: 2125-9. doi: 10.1007/s00134-009-1638-6.
45. Herndon D, Tompkins RG. Support of the metabolic response to burn injury. Lancet 2004; 363: 1895-902. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16360-5.
46. Rhee C, Strich JR, Chiotos K et al. Improving Sepsis Outcomes in the Era of Pay-for-Performance and Electronic Quality Measures: A Joint IDSA/ACEP/PIDS/SHEA/SHM/SIDP Position Paper. Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78: 505-513. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciad447.
47. Roy TK, Uniyal A, Akhilesh et al. Multifactorial pathways in burn injury-induced chronic pain: novel targets and their pharmacological modulation. Mol Biol Rep 2022; 49: 12121-12132. doi: 10.1007/s11033-022-07748-9.
48. Pardesi O, Fuzaylov G. Pain management in pediatric burn patients: review of recent literature and future directions. J Burn Care Res 2017; 38: 335-47. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000470.
49. Romanowski KS, Carson J, Pape K et al. American Burn Association Guidelines on the Management of Acute Pain in the Adult Burn Patient: A Review of the Literature, a Compilation of Expert Opinion, and Next Steps. J Burn Care Res 2020; 41: 1129-1151. doi: 10.1093/jbcr/iraa119.
50. Shiferaw A, Mola S, Gashaw A et al. Evidence-based practical guideline for procedural pain management and sedation for burn pediatrics patients undergoing wound care procedures. Ann Med Surg (Lond) 2022; 83: 104756. doi: 10.1016/j.amsu.2022.104756.
51. Schmitt YS, Hoffman HG, Blough DK et al. A randomized, controlled trial of immersive virtual reality analgesia, during physical therapy for pediatric burns. Burns 2011; 37: 61-8. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2010.07.007.
52. Jeffs D, Dorman D, Brown S et al. Effect of virtual reality on adolescent pain during burn wound care. J Burn Care Res 2014; 35: 395-408. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000019.
53. Kipping B, Rodger S, Miller K et al. Virtual reality for acute pain reduction in adolescents undergoing burn wound care: a prospective randomized controlled trial. Burns 2012; 38: 650-7. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2011.11.010.
54. Brown NJ, Kimble RM, Rodger S et al. Play and heal: randomized controlled trial of ditto™ intervention efficacy on improving re-epithelialization in pediatric burns. Burns 2014; 40: 204-13. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2013.11.024.
55. Armstrong M, Lun J, Groner JI et al. Mobile phone virtual reality game for pediatric home burn dressing pain management: a randomized feasibility clinical trial. Pilot Feasibility Stud 2022; 8: 186. doi: 10.1186/s40814-022-01150-9.
56. Xiang H, Shen J, Wheeler KK et al. Efficacy of smartphone active and passive virtual reality distraction vs standard care on burn pain among pediatric patients: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open 2021; 4: e2112082-e. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.12082.
57. Jeschke MG, van Baar ME, Choudhry MA et al. Burn injury. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2020; 6: 11. doi: 10.1038/s41572-020-0145-5.
58. Demirdjian G. Adjusting a prognostic score for burned children with logistic regression. J Burn Care Rehabil 1997; 18: 313-6. doi: 10.1097/00004630-199707000-00006.
59. Rodgers GL, Mortensen J, Fisher MC et al. Predictors of infectious complications after burn injuries in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 990-5. doi: 10.1097/00006454-200010000-00010.
60. Bhat S, Milner S. Antimicrobial peptides in burns and wounds. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2007; 8: 506-20. doi: 10.2174/138920307782411428.
61. Williams FN, Lee JO. Pediatric Burn Infection. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2021; 22: 54-7. doi: 10.1089/sur.2020.218.
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2. Armstrong M, Wheeler KK, Shi J et al. Epidemiology and trend of US pediatric burn hospitalizations, 2003–2016. Burns 2021; 47: 551-9. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2020.05.021.
3. Saritas A, Cakir ZG, Akçay MN et al. Predictors of mortality in childhood burns: an 8-year review. J Child Health Care 2014; 18: 84-95. doi: 10.1177/1367493512470575.
4. Agbenorku P, Agbenorku M, Fiifi-Yankson PK. Pediatric burns mortality risk factors in a developing country’s tertiary burns intensive care unit. Int J Burns Trauma 2013; 3: 151-8. PMID: 23875121 PMCID: PMC3712406.
5. Palmieri TL, Taylor S, Lawless M et al. Burn center volume makes a difference for burned children. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2015; 16: 319-24. doi: 10.1097/PCC.0000000000000366.
6. Rybarczyk MM, Schafer JM, Elm CM et al. A systematic review of burn injuries in low- and middle-income countries: Epidemiology in the WHO-defined African Region. Afr J Emerg Med 2017; 7: 30-7. doi: 10.1016/j.afjem.2017.01.006.
7. Park JM, Park YS, Park I et al. Characteristics of burn injuries among children aged under six years in South Korea: data from the emergency department-based injury in-depth surveillance, 2011-2016. PLoS One 2018; 13: e0198195. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198195.
8. Nassar JY, Al Qurashi AA, Albalawi I et al. Pediatric Burns: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Epidemiology, Gender Distribution, Risk Factors, Management, and Outcomes in Emergency Departments. Cureus 2023; 15: e49012. doi: 10.7759/cureus.49012.
9. Jeschke MG, Herndon DN. Burns in children: standard and new treatments. Lancet 2014; 383: 1168-78. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61093-4.
10. Lee CJ, Mahendraraj K, Houng A et al. Pediatric Burns: A Single Institution Retrospective Review of Incidence, Etiology, and Outcomes in 2273 Burn Patients (1995–2013). J Burn Care Res 2016; 37: e579–e585. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000362.
11. Van Balen NIM, Simon MH, Botman MB et al. Effectiveness of prevention programmes on the rate of burn injuries in children: a systematic review. Inj Prev 2024; 30: 68-74. doi: 10.1136/ip-2022-044827.
12. Strobel AM, Fey R. Emergency Care of Pediatric Burns. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2018; 36: 441-58. doi: 10.1016/j.emc.2017.12.011.
13. Hettiaratchy S, Dziewulski P. ABC of burns: pathophysiology and types of burns. BMJ 2004; 328: 1427-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.328.7453.1427.
14. Wolf SE, Debroy M, Herndon DN. The cornerstones and directions of pediatric burn care. Pediatr Surg Int 1997; 12: 312-20. doi: 10.1007/BF01076929.
15. Senel E, Kizilgun M, Akbiyik F et al. The evaluation of the adrenal and thyroid axes and glucose metabolism after burn injury in children. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2010; 23: 481-9. doi: 10.1515/jpem.2010.079.
16. Chan MM, Chan GM. Nutritional therapy for burns in children and adults. Nutrition 2009; 25: 261-9. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2008.10.011.Hart DW, Wolf SE, Mlcak R et al. Persistence of muscle catabolism after severe burn. Surgery 2000; 128: 312-9. doi: 10.1067/msy.2000.108059.
17. Partain KP, Fabia R, Thakkar RK. Pediatric burn care: new techniques and outcomes. Curr Opin Pediatr 2020; 32: 405-410. doi: 10.1097/MOP.0000000000000902.
18. Mathias E, Murthy SM. Pediatric Thermal Burns and Treatment: A Review of Progress and Future Prospects. Medicines (Basel) 2017; 4: 91. doi: 10.3390/medicines4040091.
19. Fitzpatrick JC, Cioffi WG Jr. Ventilatory support following burns and smoke-inhalation injury. Respir Care Clin N Am 1997; 3: 21-49. PMID: 9390901.
20. Sen S. Pediatric inhalation injury. Burns Trauma 2017; 5: 31. doi: 10.1186/s41038-017-0097-5.
21. Mc Niece WL, Dierdorf SF. The pediatric airway. Semin Pediatr Surg 2004; 13: 152-65. doi: 10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2004.04.008.
22. Legrand M, Barraud D, Constant I et al. Management of severe thermal burns in the acute phase in adults and children. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med 2020; 39: 253-67. doi: 10.1016/j.accpm.2020.03.006.
23. McLure M, Macneil F, Wood FM et al. A Rapid Review of Burns First Aid Guidelines: Is There Consistency Across International Guidelines? Cureus 2021; 13: e15779. doi: 10.7759/cureus.15779.
24. Rawlins JM, Khan AA, Shenton AF et al. Epidemiology and outcome analysis of 208 children with burns attending an emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care 2007; 23: 289-93. doi: 10.1097/01.pec.0000248698.42175.2b.
25. McCormack RA, La Hei ER, Martin HC. First-aid management of minor burns in children: a prospective study of children presenting to the Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney. Med J Aust 2003; 178: 31-3. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2003.tb05038.x.
26. Cuttle L, Kravchuk O, Wallis B et al. An Audit of First-Aid Treatment of Pediatric Burns Patients and Their Clinical Outcome Get access Arrow. J Burn Care Res 2009; 30: 1028-34. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181bfb7d1.
27. Nguyen ATM, Chamberlain K, Holland AJA. Paediatric chemical burns: a clinical review. Eur J Pediatr 2021; 180: 1359-1369. doi: 10.1007/s00431-020-03905-z.
28. Othman S, Sethi HK, Cohn JE et al. Craniofacial and neck burns in the pediatric population. Burns 2020; 46: 1225-31. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2020.03.001.
29. Sadideen H, D’Asta F, Moiemen N et al. Does overestimation of burn size in children requiring fluid resuscitation cause any harm? J Burn Care Res 2017;3 8: e546-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/BCR.0000000000000382.
30. Goverman J, Bittner EA, Friedstat JS et al. Discrepancy in initial pediatric burn estimates and its impact on fluid resuscitation. J Burn Care Res 2015;36:574-9. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000185.
31. Wachtel TL, Berry CC, Wachtel EE et al. The inter-rater reliability of estimating the size of burns from various burn area chart drawings. Burns 2000; 26: 156-70. doi: 10.1016/s0305-4179(99)00047-9.
32. Chan QE, Barzi F, Cheney L et al. Burn size estimation in children: still a problem. Emerg Med Australas 2012; 24: 181-6. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-6723.2011.01511.x.
33. Fidkowski CW, Fuzaylov G, Sheridan RL et al. Inhalation burn injury in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; Suppl 1: 147-54. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9592.2008.02884.x.
34. Baxter CR, Shires T. Physiological response to crystalloid resuscitation of severe burns. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1968; 150: 874-94. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1968.tb14738.x.
35. Dittrich MHM, de Carvalho WB, Lavado LE. Evaluation of the “Early” Use of Albumin in Children with Extensive Burns: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2016; 17: e280-6. doi: 10.1097/PCC.0000000000000728.
36. Warden GD. Burn shock resuscitation. World J Surg 1992; 16: 16-23. doi: 10.1007/BF02067109.
37. Huang PP, Stucky FS, Dimick AR et al. Hypertonic sodium resuscitation is associated with renal failure and death. Ann Surg 1995; 221: 543-54; discussion 554-7. doi: 10.1097/00000658-199505000-00012.
38. Sheridan RL. Burn Care for Children. Pediatr Rev 2018; 39: 273-86. doi: 10.1542/pir.2016-0179.
39. Steinvall I, Bak Z, Sjoberg F. Acute kidney injury is common, parallels organ dysfunction or failure, and carries appreciable mortality in patients with major burns: a prospective exploratory cohort study. Crit Care 2008; 12: R124. doi: 10.1186/cc7032.
40. Folkestad T, Brurberg KG, Nordhuus KM et al. Acute kidney injury in burn patients admitted to the intensive care unit: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care 2020; 24: 2. doi: 10.1186/s13054-019-2710-4.
41. Wu G, Xiao Y, Wang C et al. Risk Factors for Acute Kidney Injury in Patients With Burn Injury: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review. J Burn Care Res 2017; 38: 271-82. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000438.
42. Brusselaers N, Monstrey S, Colpaert K et al. Outcome of acute kidney injury in severe burns: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 2010; 36: 915-25. doi: 10.1007/s00134-010-1861-1.
43. Clark A, Neyra JA, Madni T et al. Acute kidney injury after burn. Burns 2017; 43: 898-908. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2017.01.023.
44. Palmieri T, Lavrentieva A, Greenhalgh D. An assessment of acute kidney injury with modified RIFLE criteria in pediatric patients with severe burns. Intensive Care Med 2009; 35: 2125-9. doi: 10.1007/s00134-009-1638-6.
45. Herndon D, Tompkins RG. Support of the metabolic response to burn injury. Lancet 2004; 363: 1895-902. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16360-5.
46. Rhee C, Strich JR, Chiotos K et al. Improving Sepsis Outcomes in the Era of Pay-for-Performance and Electronic Quality Measures: A Joint IDSA/ACEP/PIDS/SHEA/SHM/SIDP Position Paper. Clin Infect Dis 2024; 78: 505-513. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciad447.
47. Roy TK, Uniyal A, Akhilesh et al. Multifactorial pathways in burn injury-induced chronic pain: novel targets and their pharmacological modulation. Mol Biol Rep 2022; 49: 12121-12132. doi: 10.1007/s11033-022-07748-9.
48. Pardesi O, Fuzaylov G. Pain management in pediatric burn patients: review of recent literature and future directions. J Burn Care Res 2017; 38: 335-47. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000470.
49. Romanowski KS, Carson J, Pape K et al. American Burn Association Guidelines on the Management of Acute Pain in the Adult Burn Patient: A Review of the Literature, a Compilation of Expert Opinion, and Next Steps. J Burn Care Res 2020; 41: 1129-1151. doi: 10.1093/jbcr/iraa119.
50. Shiferaw A, Mola S, Gashaw A et al. Evidence-based practical guideline for procedural pain management and sedation for burn pediatrics patients undergoing wound care procedures. Ann Med Surg (Lond) 2022; 83: 104756. doi: 10.1016/j.amsu.2022.104756.
51. Schmitt YS, Hoffman HG, Blough DK et al. A randomized, controlled trial of immersive virtual reality analgesia, during physical therapy for pediatric burns. Burns 2011; 37: 61-8. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2010.07.007.
52. Jeffs D, Dorman D, Brown S et al. Effect of virtual reality on adolescent pain during burn wound care. J Burn Care Res 2014; 35: 395-408. doi: 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000019.
53. Kipping B, Rodger S, Miller K et al. Virtual reality for acute pain reduction in adolescents undergoing burn wound care: a prospective randomized controlled trial. Burns 2012; 38: 650-7. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2011.11.010.
54. Brown NJ, Kimble RM, Rodger S et al. Play and heal: randomized controlled trial of ditto™ intervention efficacy on improving re-epithelialization in pediatric burns. Burns 2014; 40: 204-13. doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2013.11.024.
55. Armstrong M, Lun J, Groner JI et al. Mobile phone virtual reality game for pediatric home burn dressing pain management: a randomized feasibility clinical trial. Pilot Feasibility Stud 2022; 8: 186. doi: 10.1186/s40814-022-01150-9.
56. Xiang H, Shen J, Wheeler KK et al. Efficacy of smartphone active and passive virtual reality distraction vs standard care on burn pain among pediatric patients: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open 2021; 4: e2112082-e. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.12082.
57. Jeschke MG, van Baar ME, Choudhry MA et al. Burn injury. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2020; 6: 11. doi: 10.1038/s41572-020-0145-5.
58. Demirdjian G. Adjusting a prognostic score for burned children with logistic regression. J Burn Care Rehabil 1997; 18: 313-6. doi: 10.1097/00004630-199707000-00006.
59. Rodgers GL, Mortensen J, Fisher MC et al. Predictors of infectious complications after burn injuries in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 990-5. doi: 10.1097/00006454-200010000-00010.
60. Bhat S, Milner S. Antimicrobial peptides in burns and wounds. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2007; 8: 506-20. doi: 10.2174/138920307782411428.
61. Williams FN, Lee JO. Pediatric Burn Infection. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2021; 22: 54-7. doi: 10.1089/sur.2020.218.
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Published
2025/11/19
Section
Pregledni rad / Review article