Effect of chromium and titanium on the microstructure and mechanical properties of cast steel
Keywords:
cast steel, titanium, chromium, heat treatment, microstructures, mechanical properties
Abstract
In this work, the influence of chromium and titanium on the microstructure and mechanical properties of cast steel is investigated. The analysis was carried out on a material covered by patent Pat.243157. Advanced techniques were used, including dilatometric analysis, light microscopy (LM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The material was examined in various states: as-cast, quenched, and quenched with subsequent tempering at 200 °C, 400 °C, and 600 °C. Important mechanical properties such as hardness, yield strength, percentage elongation, percentage reduction in area after fracture, and impact toughness at temperatures ranging from -40 °C to +20 °C were evaluated. The results were compared with those of a reference cast steel without these alloying elements, allowing a detailed assessment of the influence of chromium and titanium. The investigation begins with a comprehensive literature review of the effects of these elements in iron-based alloys. The results highlight the influence of chromium and titanium on the mechanical properties and microstructural development of cast steel. These elements play a critical role in enhancing mechanical strength, particularly after quenching and tempering, although there are evident trade-offs in ductility and impact toughness. In addition, the study discusses the damage mechanisms, focusing on the role of titanium nitrides in the cracking process.
References
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[25] A.G. Kostryzhev, C.R. Killmore, D. Yu, E. V. Pereloma, Martensitic wear resistant steels alloyed with titanium, Wear 446–447 (2020) 203203. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WEAR.2020.203203.
[26] Y. Murakami, H. Matsunaga, A. Abyazi, Y. Fukushima, Defect size dependence on threshold stress intensity for high-strength steel with internal hydrogen, Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 36 (2013) 836–850. https://doi.org/10.1111/FFE.12077.
[27] R. Abushosha, R. Vipond, B. Mintz, Influence of titanium on hot ductility of as cast steels, Materials Science and Technology (United Kingdom) 7 (1991) 613–621. https://doi.org/10.1179/MST.1991.7.7.613.
[28] H. Zhang, Y. Zou, Z. Zou, C. Shi, Effects of chromium addition on microstructure and properties of TiC–VC reinforced Fe-based laser cladding coatings, J Alloys Compd 614 (2014) 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JALLCOM.2014.06.073.
[29] H. Zhang, Y. Zou, Z. Zou, D. Wu, Microstructures and properties of low-chromium high corrosion-resistant TiC–VC reinforced Fe-based laser cladding layer, J Alloys Compd 622 (2015) 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JALLCOM.2014.10.012.
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[32] J. Chakraborty, D. Bhattacharjee, I. Manna, Austempering of bearing steel for improved mechanical properties, Scr Mater 59 (2008) 247–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCRIPTAMAT.2008.03.023.
[33] Ł. Konat, M. Zemlik, R. Jasiński, D. Grygier, Austenite grain growth analysis in a welded joint of high-strength martensitic abrasion-resistant steel Hardox 450, Materials 2021 14 (2021) 2850. https://doi.org/10.3390/MA14112850.
[34] J. Hidalgo, M.J. Santofimia, Effect of prior austenite grain size refinement by thermal cycling on the microstructural features of as-quenched lath martensite, Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 47 (2016) 5288–5301. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11661-016-3525-4/FIGURES/12.
[35] T. Maki, Morphology and substructure of martensite in steels, Phase Transformations in Steels (2012) 34–58. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857096111.1.34.
[36] S. Morito, H. Tanaka, R. Konishi, T. Furuhara, T. Maki, The morphology and crystallography of lath martensite in Fe-C alloys, Acta Mater 51 (2003) 1789–1799. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6454(02)00577-3.
[37] T. Swarr, G. Krauss, The effect of structure on the deformation of as-quenched and tempered martensite in an Fe-0.2 pct C alloy, Metallurgical Transactions A 7 (1976) 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02644037.
[38] C. Wang, M. Wang, J. Shi, W. Hui, H. Dong, Effect of microstructural refinement on the toughness of low carbon martensitic steel, Scr Mater 58 (2008) 492–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2007.10.053.
[39] A. Maciejny, Kruchość metali (Brittleness of Metals), Publishing House “Śląsk,” Katowice, 1973. (in Polish)
[40] J.W. Wyrzykowski, E. Pleszakow, J. Sieniawski, Odkształcenie i pękanie metali (Deformation and Cracking of Metals), Publishing House “WNT,” Warsaw, 1999. (in Polish)
[41] Kocańda Stanisław, Zmęczeniowe niszczenie metali (Fatigue Failure of Metals), Publishing House “WNT,” Warsaw, 1978. (in Polish)
[42] Y. Prawoto, N. Jasmawati, K. Sumeru, Effect of prior austenite grain size on the morphology and mechanical properties of martensite in medium carbon steel, J Mater Sci Technol 28 (2012) 461–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1005-0302(12)60083-8.
[43] D. Liu, Z. Wang, J. Liu, Z. Wang, X. Zuo, Study of the fracture behavior of TiN and TiC inclusions in NM550 wear-resistant steel during the tensile process, Metals 2022, Vol. 12, Page 363 12 (2022) 363. https://doi.org/10.3390/MET12020363.
[44] J. Du, Examination of the effect of TiN particles and grain size on the charpy impact transition temperature in steels, 2011.
[45] J.I. San Martin, J.M. Rodriguez-Ibabe, Determination of energetic parameters controlling cleavage fracture in a Ti-V microalloyed ferrite-pearlite steel, Scr Mater 40 (1999) 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6462(98)00467-9.
[46] W. Yan, Y.Y. Shan, K. Yang, Influence of TiN inclusions on the cleavage fracture behavior of low-carbon microalloyed steels, Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 38 (2007) 1211–1222. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11661-007-9161-2/FIGURES/13.
[47] G. Qiu, D. Zhan, C. Li, Y. Yang, M. Qi, Z. Jiang, H. Zhang, Influence of inclusions on the mechanical properties of RAFM steels Via Y and Ti addition, (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/met9080851.
[48] A. Echeverría, J.M. Rodriguez-Ibabe, The role of grain size in brittle particle induced fracture of steels, Materials Science and Engineering: A 346 (2003) 149–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(02)00538-5.
[49] J. Du, M. Strangwood, C.L. Davis, Effect of TiN particles and grain size on the charpy impact transition temperature in steels, J Mater Sci Technol 28 (2012) 878–888. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1005-0302(12)60146-7.
[2] B. Kalandyk, Staliwo odporne na ścieranie (Wear-resistant cast steel), in: J.J. Sobczak (Ed.), Foundry Handbook. Volume 1. Materials, Publishing House of the Technical Association of Polish Foundrymen, Krakow, 2013: pp. 335–340. (in Polish)
[3] N. Yüksel, S. Şahin, Wear behavior - hardness - microstructure relation of Fe-Cr-C and Fe-Cr-C-B based hardfacing alloys, Mater Des 58 (2014) 491–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATDES.2014.02.032.
[4] S.G. Sapate, A. Selokar, N. Garg, Experimental investigation of hardfaced martensitic steel under slurry abrasion conditions, Mater Des 31 (2010) 4001–4006. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATDES.2010.03.009.
[5] J.H. Kim, K.H. Ko, S.D. Noh, G.G. Kim, S.J. Kim, The effect of boron on the abrasive wear behavior of austenitic Fe-based hardfacing alloys, Wear 267 (2009) 1415–1419. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WEAR.2009.03.017.
[6] P.B. Pawar, A.A. Utpat, Effect of chromium on mechanical properties of A487 stainless steel alloy, International Journal of Advance Research in Science and Engineering 5 (2016) 112–118.
[7] X. Chen, J. Liang, D. Yang, Z. Hu, X. Xu, X. Gu, G. Xie, Effect of chromium on microstructure and mechanical properties of hot-dip galvanized dual-phase (DP980) steel, Crystals (Basel) 13 (2023) 1287. https://doi.org/10.3390/CRYST13081287.
[8] H. Jirková, L. Kučerová, B. Mašek, The effect of chromium on microstructure development during Q-P process, Mater Today Proc 2 (2015) S627–S630. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2015.07.362.
[9] R. Dąbrowski, J. Pacyna, Effect of chromium on the early stage of tempering of hypereutectoid steels, Archives of Metallurgy and Materials 53 (2008) 1017–1023.
[10] V.N. Zikeev, R.K. Guseinov, Effect of chromium on the properties of high-strength steel 30N9K4MF, Metal Science and Heat Treatment 21 (1979) 383–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00780783/METRICS.
[11] T. Lin, Y. Guo, Z. Wang, H. Shao, H. Lu, F. Li, X. He, Effects of chromium and carbon content on microstructure and properties of TiC-steel composites, Int J Refract Metals Hard Mater 72 (2018) 228–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJRMHM.2017.12.037.
[12] F. Han, B. Hwang, DW. Suh, Z. Wang, DL. Lee, S.-J. Kim, Effect of molybdenum and chromium on hardenability of low-carbon boron-added steels, Metals and Materials International 14 (2008) 667–672. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3365/met.mat.2008.12.667.
[13] Y. Tian, J. Ju, H. Fu, S. Ma, J. Lin, Y. Lei, Effect of chromium content on microstructure, hardness, and wear resistance of as-cast Fe-Cr-B alloy, J Mater Eng Perform 28 (2019) 6428–6437. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11665-019-04369-5/FIGURES/12.
[14] H. Fu, J. Kuang, L. Wang, Microstructure, mechanical properties, and abrasive wear behaviour of Si‐Mn‐Cr‐B cast steel as a function of carbon concentration, Steel Res Int 79 (2008) 721–728. https://doi.org/10.1002/SRIN.200806190.
[15] T.M. Scoonover, H.L. Arnson, Hardenability of low- and medium-carbon Mn-Cr-Ni-Mo steels, Journal of Heat Treating 3 (1984) 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02833260/METRICS.
[16] I. El-Mahallawi, R. Abdel-Karim, A. Naguib, Evaluation of effect of chromium on wear performance of high manganese steel, Materials Science and Technology 17 (2001) 1385–1390. https://doi.org/10.1179/026708301101509340.
[17] B. Loberg, A. Nordgren, J. Strid, K.E. Easterling, The role of alloy composition on the stability of nitrides in Ti-microalloyed steels during weld thermal cycles, Metallurgical Transactions. A, Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science 15 A (1984) 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02644385/METRICS.
[18] Y. Zhu, LuY.-M., Huang C.-W., Liang Y.-L., The effect of TiN inclusions on the fracturemechanism of 20CrMnTi steel with lath martensite, Materials Research Express 7 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab7ac3.
[19] L.P. Zhang, C.L. Davis, M. Strangwood, Dependency of fracture toughness on the inhomogeneity of coarse TiN particle distribution in a low alloy steel, Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 32 (2001) 1147–1155. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11661-001-0125-7/METRICS.
[20] O. Comineli, R. Abushosha, B. Mintz, Influence of titanium and nitrogen on hot ductility of C-Mn-Nb-Al steels, Materials Science and Technology 15 (1999) 1058–1068. https://doi.org/10.1179/026708399101506788.
[21] B. Mintz, S. Yue, J.J. Jonas, Hot ductility of steels and its relationship to the problem of transverse cracking during continuous casting, International Materials Reviews 36 (1991) 187–220. https://doi.org/10.1179/IMR.1991.36.1.187.
[22] D.C. Ramachandran, S.P. Murugan, J. Moon, C.H. Lee, Y. Do Park, The effect of the hyperstoichiometric Ti/N ratio due to excessive Ti on the toughness of N-controlled novel Fire- and seismic-resistant steels, Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 50 (2019) 3514–3527. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11661-019-05266-1/FIGURES/14.
[23] T. Liu, M. jun Long, D. fu Chen, H. mei Duan, L. tao Gui, S. Yu, J. sheng Cao, H. biao Chen, H. lin Fan, Effect of coarse TiN inclusions and microstructure on impact toughness fluctuation in Ti micro-alloyed steel, Journal of Iron and Steel Research International 25 (2018) 1043–1053. https://doi.org/10.1007/S42243-018-0149-5/FIGURES/10.
[24] A. Ghosh, A. Ray, D. Chakrabarti, C.L. Davis, Cleavage initiation in steel: Competition between large grains and large particles, Materials Science and Engineering: A 561 (2013) 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MSEA.2012.11.019.
[25] A.G. Kostryzhev, C.R. Killmore, D. Yu, E. V. Pereloma, Martensitic wear resistant steels alloyed with titanium, Wear 446–447 (2020) 203203. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WEAR.2020.203203.
[26] Y. Murakami, H. Matsunaga, A. Abyazi, Y. Fukushima, Defect size dependence on threshold stress intensity for high-strength steel with internal hydrogen, Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 36 (2013) 836–850. https://doi.org/10.1111/FFE.12077.
[27] R. Abushosha, R. Vipond, B. Mintz, Influence of titanium on hot ductility of as cast steels, Materials Science and Technology (United Kingdom) 7 (1991) 613–621. https://doi.org/10.1179/MST.1991.7.7.613.
[28] H. Zhang, Y. Zou, Z. Zou, C. Shi, Effects of chromium addition on microstructure and properties of TiC–VC reinforced Fe-based laser cladding coatings, J Alloys Compd 614 (2014) 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JALLCOM.2014.06.073.
[29] H. Zhang, Y. Zou, Z. Zou, D. Wu, Microstructures and properties of low-chromium high corrosion-resistant TiC–VC reinforced Fe-based laser cladding layer, J Alloys Compd 622 (2015) 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JALLCOM.2014.10.012.
[30] M. Matveeva, Effect of chromium and titanium on structure and properties of white cast iron, Foundy 2 (2010).
[31] W. Zhuang, H. Zhi, H. Liu, D. Zhang, D. Shi, Effect of titanium alloying on the microstructure and properties of high manganese steel, E3S Web of Conferences 79 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20197901001.
[32] J. Chakraborty, D. Bhattacharjee, I. Manna, Austempering of bearing steel for improved mechanical properties, Scr Mater 59 (2008) 247–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCRIPTAMAT.2008.03.023.
[33] Ł. Konat, M. Zemlik, R. Jasiński, D. Grygier, Austenite grain growth analysis in a welded joint of high-strength martensitic abrasion-resistant steel Hardox 450, Materials 2021 14 (2021) 2850. https://doi.org/10.3390/MA14112850.
[34] J. Hidalgo, M.J. Santofimia, Effect of prior austenite grain size refinement by thermal cycling on the microstructural features of as-quenched lath martensite, Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 47 (2016) 5288–5301. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11661-016-3525-4/FIGURES/12.
[35] T. Maki, Morphology and substructure of martensite in steels, Phase Transformations in Steels (2012) 34–58. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857096111.1.34.
[36] S. Morito, H. Tanaka, R. Konishi, T. Furuhara, T. Maki, The morphology and crystallography of lath martensite in Fe-C alloys, Acta Mater 51 (2003) 1789–1799. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6454(02)00577-3.
[37] T. Swarr, G. Krauss, The effect of structure on the deformation of as-quenched and tempered martensite in an Fe-0.2 pct C alloy, Metallurgical Transactions A 7 (1976) 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02644037.
[38] C. Wang, M. Wang, J. Shi, W. Hui, H. Dong, Effect of microstructural refinement on the toughness of low carbon martensitic steel, Scr Mater 58 (2008) 492–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2007.10.053.
[39] A. Maciejny, Kruchość metali (Brittleness of Metals), Publishing House “Śląsk,” Katowice, 1973. (in Polish)
[40] J.W. Wyrzykowski, E. Pleszakow, J. Sieniawski, Odkształcenie i pękanie metali (Deformation and Cracking of Metals), Publishing House “WNT,” Warsaw, 1999. (in Polish)
[41] Kocańda Stanisław, Zmęczeniowe niszczenie metali (Fatigue Failure of Metals), Publishing House “WNT,” Warsaw, 1978. (in Polish)
[42] Y. Prawoto, N. Jasmawati, K. Sumeru, Effect of prior austenite grain size on the morphology and mechanical properties of martensite in medium carbon steel, J Mater Sci Technol 28 (2012) 461–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1005-0302(12)60083-8.
[43] D. Liu, Z. Wang, J. Liu, Z. Wang, X. Zuo, Study of the fracture behavior of TiN and TiC inclusions in NM550 wear-resistant steel during the tensile process, Metals 2022, Vol. 12, Page 363 12 (2022) 363. https://doi.org/10.3390/MET12020363.
[44] J. Du, Examination of the effect of TiN particles and grain size on the charpy impact transition temperature in steels, 2011.
[45] J.I. San Martin, J.M. Rodriguez-Ibabe, Determination of energetic parameters controlling cleavage fracture in a Ti-V microalloyed ferrite-pearlite steel, Scr Mater 40 (1999) 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6462(98)00467-9.
[46] W. Yan, Y.Y. Shan, K. Yang, Influence of TiN inclusions on the cleavage fracture behavior of low-carbon microalloyed steels, Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 38 (2007) 1211–1222. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11661-007-9161-2/FIGURES/13.
[47] G. Qiu, D. Zhan, C. Li, Y. Yang, M. Qi, Z. Jiang, H. Zhang, Influence of inclusions on the mechanical properties of RAFM steels Via Y and Ti addition, (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/met9080851.
[48] A. Echeverría, J.M. Rodriguez-Ibabe, The role of grain size in brittle particle induced fracture of steels, Materials Science and Engineering: A 346 (2003) 149–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(02)00538-5.
[49] J. Du, M. Strangwood, C.L. Davis, Effect of TiN particles and grain size on the charpy impact transition temperature in steels, J Mater Sci Technol 28 (2012) 878–888. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1005-0302(12)60146-7.
Published
2024/12/05
How to Cite
Białobrzeska, B., Jasiński, R., Dziurka, R., & Bała, P. (2024). Effect of chromium and titanium on the microstructure and mechanical properties of cast steel. Journal of Mining and Metallurgy, Section B: Metallurgy, 60(2), 235-257. Retrieved from https://aseestant.ceon.rs/index.php/jmm/article/view/50660
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