Differences in Family Risk Factors of Drug Usage in Adolescent Girls and Boys
Keywords:
adolescents, drug use, gender differences, risk factors, family factors
Abstract
Adolescence is a critical age for the onset of drug use, linked with many risk factors, among which are family factors. This study aimed to investigate 30 family risk factors of drug usage and subsequent gender differences between male and female adolescents. Data was collected from a representative sample of 1287 high school students (Mage = 17.04, SDage = 1.147) from Belgrade, Serbia, of which 52.5% were girls. Participants filled out an anonymous self-evaluation questionnaire during their school hours, with assistance from a school psychologist. Drug usage was defined through the use of cannabinoids, depressants, stimulants, or hallucinogens at least twice in the past. Family risk factors were reported by participants using a checklist listing 30 experiences identified in the literature as risk factors related to the family context. Canonical discriminant analysis was applied separately on the samples of boys and girls and two statistically significant discriminant functions were obtained. In the sample of boys, this function was defined by 7 family variables, 6 of which were predictors of differences between drug usage and non-usage. In the sample of girls, 13 factors influenced the differences between drug usage and non-usage. The only common risk factors in both boys and girls were frequent quarrels with parents, poor communication with family members, and adolescents’ attempts to run away from home. Discussed are the differences in the number and nature of family risk factors for drug use in boys and girls, as well as practical implications for drug use prevention programs.
References
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Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431691111004
Becker, J. B., & Hu, M. (2008). Sex differences in drug abuse. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 29(1), 36–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2007.07.003
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Brook, J. S., Brook, D. W., Zhang, C., & Cohen, P. (2009). Pathways from Adolescent Parent-Child Conflict to Substance Use Disorders in the Fourth Decade of Life. American Journal on Addictions, 18(3), 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550490902786793
Butters, J. E. (2005). Promoting healthy choices: The importance of differentiating between ordinary and high-risk cannabis use among high-school students. Substance Use & Misuse, 40(6), 845–855. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-200030803
ESPAD - European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2020). ESPAD report 2019 : results from the European school survey project on alcohol and other drugs. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2810/877033
Gabrielli, J., Jackson, Y., & Brown, S. (2016). Associations Between Maltreatment History and Severity of Substance Use Behavior in Youth in Foster Care. Child Maltreatment, 21(4), 298–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559516669443
Griffin, K. W., & Botvin, G. J. (2010). Evidence-based interventions for preventing substance use disorders in adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 19(3), 505–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2010.03.005
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Hemovich, V., Lac, A., & Crano, W. D. (2011). Understanding early-onset drug and alcohol outcomes among youth: The role of family structure, social factors, and interpersonal perceptions of use. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 16(3), 249–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2010.532560
Hoffmann, E., Sobot, V., Ivanovic-Kovacevic, S., Knezevic, V., & Vejnovic A.M. (2024). The correlation between traumatic experiences and psychoactive substance use among adolescents: Implications for educational practice. Zbornik Instituta Za Pedagoska Istrazivanja, 56(1), 163–183. https://doi.org/10.2298/zipi2401163h
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Institut za javno zdravlje “Dr. Milan Jovanović Batut” (2023). Rеzultаti istrаživаnjа pоnаšаnjа u vеzi sа zdrаvljеm dеcе šкоlsкоg uzrаstа u Rеpublici Srbiјi 2022. gоdinе. Institut za javno zdravlje “Dr. Milan Jovanović Batut”, Beograd
Kobulsky, J. M. (2017). Gender differences in pathways from physical and sexual abuse to early substance use. Children and Youth Services Review, 83, 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.10.027
Krebs-Kraft, D. I., Hill, M. N., Hillard, C. J., & McCarthy, M. M. (2010). Sex difference in cell proliferation in developing rat amygdala mediated by endocannabinoids has implications for social behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(47), 20535–20540. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1005003107
Leban, L., & Gibson, C. L. (2020). The role of gender in the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and delinquency and substance use in adolescence. Journal of Criminal Justice, 66, 101637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101637
Liebschutz, J., Savetsky, J. B., Saitz, R., Horton, N. J., Lloyd-Travaglini, C., & Samet, J. H. (2002). The relationship between sexual and physical abuse and substance abuse consequences. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 22(3), 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0740-5472(02)00220-9
Lovrić, S. (2007). Droga i socijalizacija mladih. Grafomark.
Luikinga, S. J., Kim, J. H., & Perry, C. J. (2018). Developmental perspectives on methamphetamine abuse: Exploring adolescent vulnerabilities on brain and behavior. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 87, 78–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.11.010
Miller, S. M., Siegel, J. T., Hohman, Z., & Crano, W. D. (2013). Factors mediating the association of the recency of parent’s marijuana use and their adolescent children’s subsequent initiation. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27(3), 848–853. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032201
Radovanović, I. (2016). Zloupotreba droga u populaciji srednjoškolskih učenika: Fenomenologija, etiologija i modeli prevencije (Doktorska disertacija). Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju. https://phaidrabg.bg.ac.rs/view/o:13279
Rodríguez-Ruiz, J., Zych, I., Ribeaud, D., Steinhoff, A., Eisner, M., Quednow, B. B., & Shanahan, L. (2023). The Influence of Different Dimensions of the Parent–Child Relationship in Childhood as Longitudinal Predictors of Substance Use in Late Adolescence. The Mediating Role of Self-Control. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-023-01036-8
Rusby, J. C., Light, J. M., Crowley, R., & Westling, E. (2018). Influence of parent–youth relationship, parental monitoring, and parent substance use on adolescent substance use onset. Journal of Family Psychology, 32(3), 310–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000350
Ryan, J., Roman, N. V., & Okwany, A. (2015). The Effects of Parental Monitoring and Communication on Adolescent Substance Use and Risky Sexual Activity: A Systematic Review. The Open Family Studies Journal, 7(1), 12–27. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874922401507010012
Schindler, A. (2019). Attachment and Substance Use Disorders—Theoretical Models, Empirical Evidence, and Implications for Treatment. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10(727). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00727
Serpelloni, G., Genetti, B., Andreotti, A., Sperotto, M., Carpignano, A. I., & Zermiani, M. (2013). Differences in the risk factors for illicit drug use among young females and males aged 15–19 years. DAWN Drugs and Alcohol Women Network: Promoting a Gender Responsive Approach to Addiction, UNICRI Publication No. 104. https://unicri.org/sites/default/files/2019-11/English%20version.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Simon, N. M. (2009). Generalized anxiety disorder and psychiatric comorbidities such as depression, bipolar disorder, and substance abuse. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 70(Suppl 2), 10–14. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.s.7002.02
Smetana, J. G., & Rote, W. M. (2019). Adolescent–Parent Relationships: Progress, Processes, and Prospects. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1(1), 41–68. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084903
Srivastava, S., Kumar, P., Rashmi, S., Paul, R., & Dhillon, P. (2021). Does substance use by family members and community affect the substance use among adolescent boys? Evidence from UDAYA study, India. BMC Public Health, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11911-5
Stoolmiller, M., & Blechman, F. A. (2005). Substance use is a robust predictor of adolescent recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 32(3), 302–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854804274372
Trucco, E. M. (2020). A review of psychosocial factors linked to adolescent substance use. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 196(1), 172969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172969
Trucco, E. M., & Hartmann, S. A. (2021). Understanding the etiology of adolescent substance use through developmental perspectives. Child Development Perspectives, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12426
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2023). World Drug Report 2023. https://www.unodc.org/res/WDR-2023/WDR23_Exsum_fin_DP.pdf
United Nations. (2018) World Drug Report 2018. E.18X.XI.9. United Nations, UN. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/wdr2018
Vidaković, B., & Dickov, A. (2008). Karakteristike žena koje su zavisne od opijata. ESKULAP, 3(1-2), 54–62.
Wadman, R., Hiller, R. M., & St Clair, M. C. (2019). The influence of early familial adversity on adolescent risk behaviors and mental health: Stability and transition in family adversity profiles in a cohort sample. Development and Psychopathology, 32(2), 437–454. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579419000191
Wakeford, A. G. P., Morin, E. L., Bramlett, S. N., Howell, L. L., & Sanchez, M. M. (2018). A review of nonhuman primate models of early life stress and adolescent drug abuse. Neurobiology of Stress, 9, 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.09.005
Zweben, J. E. (2003). Special issues in treatment: Women. In A. W. Graham, T. K. Schultz, & M. F. Mayo-Smith (Eds.), Principles of Addiction Medicine (str. 566–580). American Society of Addiction Medicine.
Žunić-Pavlović, V., Popović-Ćitić, B., & Pavlović, M. (2010). Programi prevencije poremećaja ponašanja u školi. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju.
Baggio, S., Mohler-Kuo, M., Dupuis, M., Henchoz, Y., Studer, J., N’Goran, A. A., & Gmel, G. (2016). Substance use capital: Social resources enhancing youth substance use. Revue d’Épidémiologie et de Santé Publique, 64(4), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respe.2016.01.101
Bartol, C., & Bartol, A. (2009). Juvenile delinquency and antisocial behavior: A developmental perspective. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431691111004
Becker, J. B., & Hu, M. (2008). Sex differences in drug abuse. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 29(1), 36–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2007.07.003
Breen, C., Roxburgh, A., & Degenhardt, L. (2005). Gender differences among regular injecting drug users in Sydney, Australia, 1996–2003. Drug and Alcohol Review, 24(4), 353–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230500263871
Brook, J. S., Brook, D. W., Zhang, C., & Cohen, P. (2009). Pathways from Adolescent Parent-Child Conflict to Substance Use Disorders in the Fourth Decade of Life. American Journal on Addictions, 18(3), 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550490902786793
Butters, J. E. (2005). Promoting healthy choices: The importance of differentiating between ordinary and high-risk cannabis use among high-school students. Substance Use & Misuse, 40(6), 845–855. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-200030803
ESPAD - European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2020). ESPAD report 2019 : results from the European school survey project on alcohol and other drugs. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2810/877033
Gabrielli, J., Jackson, Y., & Brown, S. (2016). Associations Between Maltreatment History and Severity of Substance Use Behavior in Youth in Foster Care. Child Maltreatment, 21(4), 298–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559516669443
Griffin, K. W., & Botvin, G. J. (2010). Evidence-based interventions for preventing substance use disorders in adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 19(3), 505–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2010.03.005
Haugland, S. H., Coombes, L., & Stea, T. H. (2019). Associations between parenting and substance use, meal pattern and food choices: A cross-sectional survey of 13,269 Norwegian adolescents. Preventive Medicine Reports, 14, 100862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.100862
Hawkins, J. D., Arthur, M. W., & Catalano, R. F. (1995). Preventing substance abuse. In M. Tonry & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Building a safer society: Strategic approaches to crime prevention (Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Vol. 19, pp. 343–427). University of Chicago Press.
Hemovich, V., Lac, A., & Crano, W. D. (2011). Understanding early-onset drug and alcohol outcomes among youth: The role of family structure, social factors, and interpersonal perceptions of use. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 16(3), 249–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2010.532560
Hoffmann, E., Sobot, V., Ivanovic-Kovacevic, S., Knezevic, V., & Vejnovic A.M. (2024). The correlation between traumatic experiences and psychoactive substance use among adolescents: Implications for educational practice. Zbornik Instituta Za Pedagoska Istrazivanja, 56(1), 163–183. https://doi.org/10.2298/zipi2401163h
Hser, Y. I., Evans, E., & Huang, Y. C. (2005). Treatment outcomes among women and men methamphetamine abusers in California. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 28(1), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2004.10.009
Institut za javno zdravlje “Dr. Milan Jovanović Batut” (2023). Rеzultаti istrаživаnjа pоnаšаnjа u vеzi sа zdrаvljеm dеcе šкоlsкоg uzrаstа u Rеpublici Srbiјi 2022. gоdinе. Institut za javno zdravlje “Dr. Milan Jovanović Batut”, Beograd
Kobulsky, J. M. (2017). Gender differences in pathways from physical and sexual abuse to early substance use. Children and Youth Services Review, 83, 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.10.027
Krebs-Kraft, D. I., Hill, M. N., Hillard, C. J., & McCarthy, M. M. (2010). Sex difference in cell proliferation in developing rat amygdala mediated by endocannabinoids has implications for social behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(47), 20535–20540. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1005003107
Leban, L., & Gibson, C. L. (2020). The role of gender in the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and delinquency and substance use in adolescence. Journal of Criminal Justice, 66, 101637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101637
Liebschutz, J., Savetsky, J. B., Saitz, R., Horton, N. J., Lloyd-Travaglini, C., & Samet, J. H. (2002). The relationship between sexual and physical abuse and substance abuse consequences. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 22(3), 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0740-5472(02)00220-9
Lovrić, S. (2007). Droga i socijalizacija mladih. Grafomark.
Luikinga, S. J., Kim, J. H., & Perry, C. J. (2018). Developmental perspectives on methamphetamine abuse: Exploring adolescent vulnerabilities on brain and behavior. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 87, 78–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.11.010
Miller, S. M., Siegel, J. T., Hohman, Z., & Crano, W. D. (2013). Factors mediating the association of the recency of parent’s marijuana use and their adolescent children’s subsequent initiation. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27(3), 848–853. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032201
Radovanović, I. (2016). Zloupotreba droga u populaciji srednjoškolskih učenika: Fenomenologija, etiologija i modeli prevencije (Doktorska disertacija). Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju. https://phaidrabg.bg.ac.rs/view/o:13279
Rodríguez-Ruiz, J., Zych, I., Ribeaud, D., Steinhoff, A., Eisner, M., Quednow, B. B., & Shanahan, L. (2023). The Influence of Different Dimensions of the Parent–Child Relationship in Childhood as Longitudinal Predictors of Substance Use in Late Adolescence. The Mediating Role of Self-Control. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-023-01036-8
Rusby, J. C., Light, J. M., Crowley, R., & Westling, E. (2018). Influence of parent–youth relationship, parental monitoring, and parent substance use on adolescent substance use onset. Journal of Family Psychology, 32(3), 310–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000350
Ryan, J., Roman, N. V., & Okwany, A. (2015). The Effects of Parental Monitoring and Communication on Adolescent Substance Use and Risky Sexual Activity: A Systematic Review. The Open Family Studies Journal, 7(1), 12–27. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874922401507010012
Schindler, A. (2019). Attachment and Substance Use Disorders—Theoretical Models, Empirical Evidence, and Implications for Treatment. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10(727). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00727
Serpelloni, G., Genetti, B., Andreotti, A., Sperotto, M., Carpignano, A. I., & Zermiani, M. (2013). Differences in the risk factors for illicit drug use among young females and males aged 15–19 years. DAWN Drugs and Alcohol Women Network: Promoting a Gender Responsive Approach to Addiction, UNICRI Publication No. 104. https://unicri.org/sites/default/files/2019-11/English%20version.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Simon, N. M. (2009). Generalized anxiety disorder and psychiatric comorbidities such as depression, bipolar disorder, and substance abuse. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 70(Suppl 2), 10–14. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.s.7002.02
Smetana, J. G., & Rote, W. M. (2019). Adolescent–Parent Relationships: Progress, Processes, and Prospects. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1(1), 41–68. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084903
Srivastava, S., Kumar, P., Rashmi, S., Paul, R., & Dhillon, P. (2021). Does substance use by family members and community affect the substance use among adolescent boys? Evidence from UDAYA study, India. BMC Public Health, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11911-5
Stoolmiller, M., & Blechman, F. A. (2005). Substance use is a robust predictor of adolescent recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 32(3), 302–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854804274372
Trucco, E. M. (2020). A review of psychosocial factors linked to adolescent substance use. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 196(1), 172969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172969
Trucco, E. M., & Hartmann, S. A. (2021). Understanding the etiology of adolescent substance use through developmental perspectives. Child Development Perspectives, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12426
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2023). World Drug Report 2023. https://www.unodc.org/res/WDR-2023/WDR23_Exsum_fin_DP.pdf
United Nations. (2018) World Drug Report 2018. E.18X.XI.9. United Nations, UN. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/wdr2018
Vidaković, B., & Dickov, A. (2008). Karakteristike žena koje su zavisne od opijata. ESKULAP, 3(1-2), 54–62.
Wadman, R., Hiller, R. M., & St Clair, M. C. (2019). The influence of early familial adversity on adolescent risk behaviors and mental health: Stability and transition in family adversity profiles in a cohort sample. Development and Psychopathology, 32(2), 437–454. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579419000191
Wakeford, A. G. P., Morin, E. L., Bramlett, S. N., Howell, L. L., & Sanchez, M. M. (2018). A review of nonhuman primate models of early life stress and adolescent drug abuse. Neurobiology of Stress, 9, 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.09.005
Zweben, J. E. (2003). Special issues in treatment: Women. In A. W. Graham, T. K. Schultz, & M. F. Mayo-Smith (Eds.), Principles of Addiction Medicine (str. 566–580). American Society of Addiction Medicine.
Žunić-Pavlović, V., Popović-Ćitić, B., & Pavlović, M. (2010). Programi prevencije poremećaja ponašanja u školi. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju.
