Social Class and Gender in an Equation of Students’ Mathematics Identity
Keywords:
Mathematics identity, Social class, Gender, Cultural capital, Inequity
Abstract
Addressing the achievement gap in mathematics across social class and gender is essential, as mathematics is widely seen as a pathway to social mobility and a tool for breaking cycles of inequality. Using a Bourdieusian perspective and the concept of mathematical identity, this study investigates the hindering and supporting processes in disadvantaged students’ identification with mathematics. Six disadvantaged fourth and fifth graders were interviewed to explore and describe their mathematical identities. The findings reveal that students from disadvantaged backgrounds face systemic challenges in school mathematics as soon as they encounter school mathematics, resulting in low confidence and negative self-perceptions. These students recognize the societal importance of mathematics, while they feel personally and academically disconnected from it, creating tensions in their relationship with the subject. The students don’t follow the institutional requirements for mathematics success, as they are focused on fulfilling short-term academic goals. Boys appear to have a slight advantage, as aspects of their mathematical identities can be reinforced by their gender identities, though this comes with additional pressures and responsibility. In contrast, girls from disadvantaged families lack any foundation for basing their mathematical identity on. Improving mathematics education for disadvantaged students requires teachers to recognize and address systemic barriers, including implicit taken-for-granted rules, biases and implicit messages, while creating opportunities for all students to feel competent and find mathematics meaningful. However, true equity demands systemic change, starting with curriculum developers and teacher education programs, to dismantle traditional barriers and redesign mathematics as an inclusive and accessible domain for all.
References
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Chetty, R., Friedman, J., Hendren, N., & Stepner, M. (2020). Real-time economics: A new platform to track the impacts of COVID-19 on people, businesses, and communities using private sector data. NBER Working Paper, 27431. https://doi.org/10.3386/w27431
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Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2017). Research methods in education. Routledge.
Conger, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2007). An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 175–199. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085551
Davis, C. R., Grooms, J., Ortega, A., Rubalcaba, J. A. A., & Vargas, E. (2021). Distance learning and parental mental health during COVID-19. Educational Researcher, 50(1), 61–64. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20978806
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: The indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
D'Ambrosio, U. (1985). Ethnomathematics and its place in the history and pedagogy of mathematics. For the learning of Mathematics, 5(1), 44-48. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40247876
DeFlorio, L., & Beliakoff, A. (2014). Socioeconomic status and preschoolers’ mathematical knowledge: The contribution of home activities and parent beliefs. Early Education and Development, 26(3), 319–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2015.968239
Dinis, F., Baucal, A, Mata, L., & Peixoto F. (2019). Achievement emotions and motivation towards mathematics in primary and middle school students. The International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development (ISSBD) Conference 2019.
Di Battista, S. (2024). ‘She is failing; he is learning’: Gender‐differentiated attributions for girls' and boys' errors. British Journal of Educational Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12665
Duncan, G. J., Magnuson, K., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2014). Boosting family income to promote child development. The Future of Children, 24(1), 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2014.0008
Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindsets and math/science achievement. Preuzeto sa: http://www.growthmindsetmaths.com/uploads/2/3/7/7/23776169/mindset_and_math_science_achievement_-_nov_2013.pdf
Eccles, J. (2009). Who am I and what am I going to do with my life? Personal and collective identities as motivators of action. Educational psychologist, 44(2), 78-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520902832368
Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). Children's competence and value beliefs from childhood through adolescence: growth trajectories in two male-sex-typed domains. Developmental psychology, 38(4), 519. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.519
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Gee, J. P. (2001). Identity as an analytic lens for educational research. Review of research in education, 25(1), 99-125. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X025001099
Gorski, P. C. (2012). Perceiving the Problem of Poverty and Schooling:Deconstructing the Class Stereotypes that Mis-Shape Education Practice andPolicy. Equity & Excellence in Education, 45(2), 302319. DOI: 10.1080/10665684.2012.666934
Grootenboer, P., & Zevenbergen, R. (2008). Identity as a lens to understand learning mathematics: Developing a model. Navigating currents and charting directions, 1, 243-250.
Gottfried, A. E., Marcoulides, G. A., Gottfried, A. W., & Oliver, P. H. (2009). A latent curve model of parental motivational practices and developmental decline in math and science academic intrinsic motivation. Journal of educational psychology, 101(3), 729. DOI: 10.1037/a0015084.
Gundogan, D. Ž., Malinić, D. M., & Radulović, M. B. (2020). Mogu li različiti načini rada u nastavi da utiču na povezanost društvenog položaja i postignuća učenika? 2. Teaching Innovations/Inovacije u Nastavi, 33(2). DOI: 10.5937/inovacije2002029G.
Gutiérrez, R., & Dixon-Román, E. (2011). Beyond gap gazing: How can thinking about education comprehensively help us (re)envision mathematics education? In B. Atweh, M. Graven, W. Secada, & P. Valero (Eds.), Mapping equity and quality in mathematics education (pp. 21–34). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2813-4_3.
Gutiérrez, R. (2013). The sociopolitical turn in mathematics education. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 44(1), 37-68. DOI: 10.5951/jresematheduc.44.1.0037.
Jagannathan, R., Camasso, M. J., & Delacalle, M. (2018). The effectiveness of a head-heart-hands model for natural and environmental science learning in urban schools. Evaluation and Program Planning, 66, 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2017.10.008
Jorgensen, R., Gates, P., & Roper, V. (2014). Structural exclusion through school mathematics: Using Bourdieu to understand mathematics as a social practice. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 87, 221-239. DOI: 10.1007/s10649-013-9468-4
Jovanović, O. (2017). Siromaštvo u kontekstu: Ekološki pristup izučavanju siromaštva [The Poverty of Context: An Ecological Approach to Studying Poverty]. In: Petrović, N. (Ur.), Politička psihologija u savremenom svetu (pp. 177-195). Institut za psihologiju, Filozofski fakultet u Beogradu.
Kuhfeld, M., Ruzek, E., Johnson, A., Trasawa, B., & Lewis, K. (2020). Technical appendix for: Learning during COVID-19: Initial findings on students’ reading and math achievement and growth. NWEA. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20978806
LeFevre, J. A., Skwarchuk, S. L., Smith-Chant, B. L., Fast, L., Kamawar, D., & Bisanz, J. (2009). Home numeracy experiences and children’s math performance in the early school years. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 41(2), 55. DOI: 10.1037/a0014532
Lareau, A. (2018). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. In D. B. Grusky (Ed.), Inequality in the 21st century (pp. 444–451). Routledge
Lerman, S. (2000). The social turn in mathematics education research. Multiple perspectives on mathematics teaching and learning, 19-44.
Lerman, S. (2020). Socioeconomic class and socioeconomic status in mathematics education. In S. Lerman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Mathematics Education (pp. 785–790). Springer.
Magnuson, K. (2007). Maternal education and children’s academic achievement during middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1497–1512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1497
Mendick, H. (2005). A beautiful myth? The gendering of being/doing ‘good at maths.’ Gender and Education, 17(2), 203–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/0954025042000301465
Mendick, H., Epstein, D., & Moreau, M. P. (2008). Mathematical images and identities: Entertainment, education, social justice. Research in Mathematics Education, 10(1), 101–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/14794800801916978
Mićić, K. & Baucal, A. (2022, March 31-April 3). Parental practices related to learning mathematics: Do parents differ? [Conference presentation abstract]. XXVIII scientific conference empirical studies in psychology. http://empirijskaistrazivanja.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/KNJIGA-REZIMEA-2022_FIN-sa-isbn_bez_linija-1.pdf.
Mićić, K., & Blažanin, B. (2024, March 22-24). Cultural Correlates Of Gender Gap Trends In Pisa Mathematics Performance Across Countries And Time. [Conference presentation abstract]. XXX scientific conference empirical studies in psychology. https://empirijskaistrazivanja.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/EIP2024_book_of_abstracts.pdf
Mićić, K. (2004). Sociokulturološka perspektiva razvoja matematičke kompetencije kod devojčica i dečaka: Matematički identitet učenika kao oslonac i kao prepreka. [Doktorska disertacija, Univerzitet u Beogradu].
Niss, M. (1994). Mathematics in society. In R. Biehler, R. Scholz, R. Straesser, & B. Winkelmann (Eds.), The didactics of mathematics as a scientific discipline (pp. 367–378). Kluwer Academic Publishers.
OECD. (2005b). PISA 2003 technical report. In PISA. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264010543-en.
OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/5a3db202-en
Picker, S. H., & Berry, J. S. (2000). Investigating pupils' images of mathematicians. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 43, 65-94. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017523230758.
Radulović, M., Radulović, L., & Stančić, M. (2022). Can teacher support reduce inequalities in education? Re-examining the relationship between cultural capital and achievement. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 43(7), 1012–1031. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2022.2092449.
Räty, H., Vänskä, J., Kasanen, K., & Kärkkäinen, R. (2002). Parents’ explanations of their child’s performance in mathematics and reading: A replication and extension of Yee and Eccles. Sex Roles, 46(3–4), 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016573627828
Reardon, S. F. (2018). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor. In Social stratification (pp. 536–550). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429499821-32
Saw, G., Chang, C. N., & Chan, H. Y. (2018). Cross-sectional and longitudinal disparities in STEM career aspirations at the intersection of gender, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Educational Researcher, 47(8), 525–531. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X18787818
Solomon, Y., Lawson, D., & Croft, T. (2011). Dealing with ‘fragile identities’: resistance and refiguring in women mathematics students. Gender and Education, 23(5), 565-583. DOI: 10.1080/09540253.2010.512270
Spencer, B., & Castano, E. (2007). Social class is dead. Long live social class! Stereotype threat among low socioeconomic status individuals. Social Justice Research, 20, 418–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-007-0047-7
Szumski, G., & Karwowski, M. (2019). Exploring the Pygmalion effect: The role of teacher expectations, academic self-concept, and class context in students’ math achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59, 101787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101787
Thomson, P. (2002). Schooling the rustbelt kids: Making the difference in changing times. Allen & Unwin.
Vandermaas‐Peeler, M., Nelson, J., Bumpass, C., & Sassine, B. (2009). Numeracy‐related exchanges in joint storybook reading and play. International Journal of Early Years Education, 17(1), 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760802699910
Vit, E. (2023). The ability of low- and high-socioeconomic status schools to inhibit learning losses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 7(1), 100393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100393
Wenger, E. (1999). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge university press.
Winker G., & Degele N. (2011). Intersectionality as multi-level analysis: Dealing with social inequality. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 18(1), 51–66. https://doi-org.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/10.1177/1350506810386084
Zevenbergen, R. (2000). ‘Cracking the code’ of mathematics classrooms: School success as a function of linguistic, social and cultural background. In J. Boaler (Ed.), Multiple perspectives on mathematics teaching (pp. 201–224). Alex.
Aguilar, M. S., Rosas, A., Zavaleta, J. G. M., & Romo-Vázquez, A. (2016). Exploring High-achieving Students’ Images of Mathematicians. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(3), 527-548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-014-9586-1
Boaler, J. (2002). The development of disciplinary relationships: Knowledge, practice, and identity in mathematics classrooms. For the Learning of Mathematics, 22(1), 42–47. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40248383
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction. Harvard University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1990). In other words: Essays towards a reflexive sociology (M. Adamson, Trans.). Polity Press.
Chetty, R., Friedman, J., Hendren, N., & Stepner, M. (2020). Real-time economics: A new platform to track the impacts of COVID-19 on people, businesses, and communities using private sector data. NBER Working Paper, 27431. https://doi.org/10.3386/w27431
Cobb, P., Gresalfi, M., & Hodge, L. L. (2009). An interpretive scheme for analyzing the identities that students develop in mathematics classrooms. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 40(1), 40–68. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.40.1.0040
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2017). Research methods in education. Routledge.
Conger, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2007). An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 175–199. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085551
Davis, C. R., Grooms, J., Ortega, A., Rubalcaba, J. A. A., & Vargas, E. (2021). Distance learning and parental mental health during COVID-19. Educational Researcher, 50(1), 61–64. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20978806
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: The indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
D'Ambrosio, U. (1985). Ethnomathematics and its place in the history and pedagogy of mathematics. For the learning of Mathematics, 5(1), 44-48. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40247876
DeFlorio, L., & Beliakoff, A. (2014). Socioeconomic status and preschoolers’ mathematical knowledge: The contribution of home activities and parent beliefs. Early Education and Development, 26(3), 319–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2015.968239
Dinis, F., Baucal, A, Mata, L., & Peixoto F. (2019). Achievement emotions and motivation towards mathematics in primary and middle school students. The International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development (ISSBD) Conference 2019.
Di Battista, S. (2024). ‘She is failing; he is learning’: Gender‐differentiated attributions for girls' and boys' errors. British Journal of Educational Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12665
Duncan, G. J., Magnuson, K., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2014). Boosting family income to promote child development. The Future of Children, 24(1), 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2014.0008
Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindsets and math/science achievement. Preuzeto sa: http://www.growthmindsetmaths.com/uploads/2/3/7/7/23776169/mindset_and_math_science_achievement_-_nov_2013.pdf
Eccles, J. (2009). Who am I and what am I going to do with my life? Personal and collective identities as motivators of action. Educational psychologist, 44(2), 78-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520902832368
Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). Children's competence and value beliefs from childhood through adolescence: growth trajectories in two male-sex-typed domains. Developmental psychology, 38(4), 519. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.519
Gates, P., & Vistro-Yu, C. P. (2003). Is mathematics for all? In A. J. Bishop, M. A. Clements, C. Keitel, J. Kilpatrick, & F. K. S. Leung (Eds.), Second international handbook of mathematics education (pp. 31–73). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0273-8_3.
Gee, J. P. (2001). Identity as an analytic lens for educational research. Review of research in education, 25(1), 99-125. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X025001099
Gorski, P. C. (2012). Perceiving the Problem of Poverty and Schooling:Deconstructing the Class Stereotypes that Mis-Shape Education Practice andPolicy. Equity & Excellence in Education, 45(2), 302319. DOI: 10.1080/10665684.2012.666934
Grootenboer, P., & Zevenbergen, R. (2008). Identity as a lens to understand learning mathematics: Developing a model. Navigating currents and charting directions, 1, 243-250.
Gottfried, A. E., Marcoulides, G. A., Gottfried, A. W., & Oliver, P. H. (2009). A latent curve model of parental motivational practices and developmental decline in math and science academic intrinsic motivation. Journal of educational psychology, 101(3), 729. DOI: 10.1037/a0015084.
Gundogan, D. Ž., Malinić, D. M., & Radulović, M. B. (2020). Mogu li različiti načini rada u nastavi da utiču na povezanost društvenog položaja i postignuća učenika? 2. Teaching Innovations/Inovacije u Nastavi, 33(2). DOI: 10.5937/inovacije2002029G.
Gutiérrez, R., & Dixon-Román, E. (2011). Beyond gap gazing: How can thinking about education comprehensively help us (re)envision mathematics education? In B. Atweh, M. Graven, W. Secada, & P. Valero (Eds.), Mapping equity and quality in mathematics education (pp. 21–34). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2813-4_3.
Gutiérrez, R. (2013). The sociopolitical turn in mathematics education. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 44(1), 37-68. DOI: 10.5951/jresematheduc.44.1.0037.
Jagannathan, R., Camasso, M. J., & Delacalle, M. (2018). The effectiveness of a head-heart-hands model for natural and environmental science learning in urban schools. Evaluation and Program Planning, 66, 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2017.10.008
Jorgensen, R., Gates, P., & Roper, V. (2014). Structural exclusion through school mathematics: Using Bourdieu to understand mathematics as a social practice. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 87, 221-239. DOI: 10.1007/s10649-013-9468-4
Jovanović, O. (2017). Siromaštvo u kontekstu: Ekološki pristup izučavanju siromaštva [The Poverty of Context: An Ecological Approach to Studying Poverty]. In: Petrović, N. (Ur.), Politička psihologija u savremenom svetu (pp. 177-195). Institut za psihologiju, Filozofski fakultet u Beogradu.
Kuhfeld, M., Ruzek, E., Johnson, A., Trasawa, B., & Lewis, K. (2020). Technical appendix for: Learning during COVID-19: Initial findings on students’ reading and math achievement and growth. NWEA. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20978806
LeFevre, J. A., Skwarchuk, S. L., Smith-Chant, B. L., Fast, L., Kamawar, D., & Bisanz, J. (2009). Home numeracy experiences and children’s math performance in the early school years. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 41(2), 55. DOI: 10.1037/a0014532
Lareau, A. (2018). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. In D. B. Grusky (Ed.), Inequality in the 21st century (pp. 444–451). Routledge
Lerman, S. (2000). The social turn in mathematics education research. Multiple perspectives on mathematics teaching and learning, 19-44.
Lerman, S. (2020). Socioeconomic class and socioeconomic status in mathematics education. In S. Lerman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Mathematics Education (pp. 785–790). Springer.
Magnuson, K. (2007). Maternal education and children’s academic achievement during middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1497–1512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1497
Mendick, H. (2005). A beautiful myth? The gendering of being/doing ‘good at maths.’ Gender and Education, 17(2), 203–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/0954025042000301465
Mendick, H., Epstein, D., & Moreau, M. P. (2008). Mathematical images and identities: Entertainment, education, social justice. Research in Mathematics Education, 10(1), 101–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/14794800801916978
Mićić, K. & Baucal, A. (2022, March 31-April 3). Parental practices related to learning mathematics: Do parents differ? [Conference presentation abstract]. XXVIII scientific conference empirical studies in psychology. http://empirijskaistrazivanja.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/KNJIGA-REZIMEA-2022_FIN-sa-isbn_bez_linija-1.pdf.
Mićić, K., & Blažanin, B. (2024, March 22-24). Cultural Correlates Of Gender Gap Trends In Pisa Mathematics Performance Across Countries And Time. [Conference presentation abstract]. XXX scientific conference empirical studies in psychology. https://empirijskaistrazivanja.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/EIP2024_book_of_abstracts.pdf
Mićić, K. (2004). Sociokulturološka perspektiva razvoja matematičke kompetencije kod devojčica i dečaka: Matematički identitet učenika kao oslonac i kao prepreka. [Doktorska disertacija, Univerzitet u Beogradu].
Niss, M. (1994). Mathematics in society. In R. Biehler, R. Scholz, R. Straesser, & B. Winkelmann (Eds.), The didactics of mathematics as a scientific discipline (pp. 367–378). Kluwer Academic Publishers.
OECD. (2005b). PISA 2003 technical report. In PISA. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264010543-en.
OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/5a3db202-en
Picker, S. H., & Berry, J. S. (2000). Investigating pupils' images of mathematicians. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 43, 65-94. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017523230758.
Radulović, M., Radulović, L., & Stančić, M. (2022). Can teacher support reduce inequalities in education? Re-examining the relationship between cultural capital and achievement. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 43(7), 1012–1031. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2022.2092449.
Räty, H., Vänskä, J., Kasanen, K., & Kärkkäinen, R. (2002). Parents’ explanations of their child’s performance in mathematics and reading: A replication and extension of Yee and Eccles. Sex Roles, 46(3–4), 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016573627828
Reardon, S. F. (2018). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor. In Social stratification (pp. 536–550). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429499821-32
Saw, G., Chang, C. N., & Chan, H. Y. (2018). Cross-sectional and longitudinal disparities in STEM career aspirations at the intersection of gender, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Educational Researcher, 47(8), 525–531. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X18787818
Solomon, Y., Lawson, D., & Croft, T. (2011). Dealing with ‘fragile identities’: resistance and refiguring in women mathematics students. Gender and Education, 23(5), 565-583. DOI: 10.1080/09540253.2010.512270
Spencer, B., & Castano, E. (2007). Social class is dead. Long live social class! Stereotype threat among low socioeconomic status individuals. Social Justice Research, 20, 418–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-007-0047-7
Szumski, G., & Karwowski, M. (2019). Exploring the Pygmalion effect: The role of teacher expectations, academic self-concept, and class context in students’ math achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59, 101787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101787
Thomson, P. (2002). Schooling the rustbelt kids: Making the difference in changing times. Allen & Unwin.
Vandermaas‐Peeler, M., Nelson, J., Bumpass, C., & Sassine, B. (2009). Numeracy‐related exchanges in joint storybook reading and play. International Journal of Early Years Education, 17(1), 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760802699910
Vit, E. (2023). The ability of low- and high-socioeconomic status schools to inhibit learning losses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 7(1), 100393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100393
Wenger, E. (1999). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge university press.
Winker G., & Degele N. (2011). Intersectionality as multi-level analysis: Dealing with social inequality. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 18(1), 51–66. https://doi-org.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/10.1177/1350506810386084
Zevenbergen, R. (2000). ‘Cracking the code’ of mathematics classrooms: School success as a function of linguistic, social and cultural background. In J. Boaler (Ed.), Multiple perspectives on mathematics teaching (pp. 201–224). Alex.
