Socioeconomic status, parenting stress and parenting practices during the covid-19 lockdown in Serbia
Abstract
The lockdown in Serbia imposed major challenges for parents to take on a 24/7 shift in caretaking, educating, and entertaining their children, while managing to complete the demands of their professional roles and everyday household functioning, along with the constant fear of the virus spreading and potential job loss. This study examines parenting practices (enriching activities, harsh parenting, daily structure, screen time and perception of the increase in screen time) during the COVID-19 lockdown in relation to the perceived parenting stress, parents’ socioeconomic status and their working conditions (i.e., without work obligation, working online, working from the workplace). The sample consisted of 1510 mothers of preschool children. Four socioeconomic clusters were identified using the relevant variables (education level, economic status and impact of the pandemic on the financial situation). The results showed that highly educated mothers who worked remotely during the lockdown experienced significantly higher stress of balancing working and parenting than other parents. Mothers who did not work during the pandemic spent more time in enriching activities (p<0.01) and maintained the daily structure better (p<0.01), while mothers who worked remotely perceived a larger effect of the pandemic impact on screen time. The results indicate that, in times of crisis, it is necessary to design the support for the parents of early-aged children corresponding to their specific financial and educational background.
References
Abidin, R. R. (1992). The determinants of parenting behavior. Journal of clinical child psychology, 21(4), 407-412. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_12
Alonzo, D., Popescu, M., & Zubaroglu Ioannides, P. (2022). Mental health impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on parents in high-risk, low-income communities. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 68(3), 575-581. https://doi.org/10.1177/002076402199189
Andrew, A., Cattan, S., Dias, M. C., Farquharson, C., Kraftman, L., Krutikova, S., Phimister, A. & Sevilla, A. (2020). Family time use and home learning during the COVID-19 lockdown (No. R178). IFS Report.
Antunes, A. P., Martins, S., Magalhães, L., & Almeida, A. T. (2021). Parenting during the COVID-19 Lockdown in Portugal: Changes in Daily Routines, Co-Parenting Relationships, Emotional Experiences, and Support Networks. Children, 8(12), 1124. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8121124
Bates, C. R., Nicholson, L. M., Rea, E. M., Hagy, H. A., & Bohnert, A. M. (2021). Life interrupted: Family routines buffer stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of child and family studies, 30(11), 2641-2651. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02063-6
Benke, C., Autenrieth, L. K., Asselmann, E., & Pané-Farré, C. A. (2020). Lockdown, quarantine measures, and social distancing: Associations with depression, anxiety and distress at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic among adults from Germany. Psychiatry research, 293, 113462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113462
Bergmann, C., Dimitrova, N., Alaslani, K., Almohammadi, A., Alroqi, H., Aussems, S., Barokova, M., Davies, C., Gonzalez-Gomez, N., Gibson, S.P., Havron, N., Horowitz-Kraus, T., Kanero, J., Kartushina, N., Keller, C., Mayor, J., Mundry, R., Shinskey J., & Mani, N. (2022). Young children’s screen time during the first COVID-19 lockdown in 12 countries. Scientific reports, 12(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-05840-5
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual review of psychology, 53(1), 371-399. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233
Britto, P. R., Fuligni, A. S., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). Reading, rhymes, and routines: American parents and their young children. In N. Halfon, K. T. McLearn, & M. A. Schuster (Eds.), Child rearing in America: Challenges facing parents with young children (pp. 117–145). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511499753.005
Brown, S. M., Doom, J. R., Lechuga-Peña, S., Watamura, S. E., & Koppels, T. (2020). Stress and parenting during the global COVID-19 pandemic. Child abuse & neglect, 110, 104699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104699
Bülow, A., Keijsers, L., Boele, S., van Roekel, E., & Denissen, J. J. (2021). Parenting adolescents in times of a pandemic: Changes in relationship quality, autonomy support, and parental control? Developmental Psychology, 57(10), 1582-1596. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001208
Cassinat, J. R., Whiteman, S. D., Serang, S., Dotterer, A. M., Mustillo, S. A., Maggs, J. L., & Kelly, B. C. (2021). Changes in family chaos and family relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental psychology, 57(10), 1597 -1610. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001217
Chong, S.C., Teo, W.Z. & Shorey, S. (2023). Exploring the perception of parents on children’s screentime: a systematic review and meta-synthesis of qualitative studies. Pediatric Research. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-023-02555-9
Chung, G., Lanier, P., & Wong, P. Y. J. (2020). Mediating effects of parental stress on harsh parenting and parent-child relationship during coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in Singapore. Journal of family violence, 37, 801–812. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00200-1
Conger, R. D., & Conger, K. J. (2002). Resilience in Midwestern families: Selected findings from the first decade of a prospective, longitudinal study. Journal of marriage and family, 64(2), 361-373. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00361.x
Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., & Martin, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 685-704. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00725.x
Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder Jr, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child development, 65(2), 541-561. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00768.x
Connell, C. M., & Strambler, M. J. (2021). Experiences with COVID-19 stressors and parents’ use of neglectful, harsh, and positive parenting practices in the north-eastern United States. Child maltreatment, 26(3), 255-266. https://doi.org/10.1177/107755952110064
Crnic, K. A., Gaze, C., & Hoffman, C. (2005). Cumulative parenting stress across the preschool period: Relations to maternal parenting and child behaviour at age 5. Infant and Child Development: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 14(2), 117-132. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.384
Wiltshire, C.A., Troller-Renfree, S.V., Giebler, M.A., & Noble, K.G. (2021). Associations among average parental educational attainment, maternal stress, and infant screen exposure at 6 months of age; Infant Behavior and Development, 65, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2021.101644.
Davis, C. R., Grooms, J., Ortega, A., Rubalcaba, J. A. A., & Vargas, E. (2021). Distance learning and parental mental health during COVID-19. Educational Researcher, 50(1), 61-64. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X2097880
Deater-Deckard, K. (1998). Parenting stress and child adjustment: Some old hypotheses and new questions. Clinical psychology: Science and practice, 5(3), 314-332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00152.x
Deater-Deckard, K., & Scarr, S. (1996). Parenting stress among dual-earner mothers and fathers: Are there gender differences? Journal of family psychology, 10(1), 45-59. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.10.1.45
Deeb, S., Madden, D., Ghebretinsae, T., Lin, J., Ozbek, U., Mayer, V., & Vangeepuram, N. (2022). Child Disruptions, Remote Learning, and Parent Mental Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11), 6442. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116442
Dodd, H. F., FitzGibbon, L., Watson, B. E., & Nesbit, R. J. (2021). Children’s play and independent mobility in 2020: results from the British Children’s Play Survey. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(8), 4334. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084334
Eales, L., Ferguson, G. M., Gillespie, S., Smoyer, S., & Carlson, S. M. (2021). Family resilience and psychological distress in the COVID-19 pandemic: A mixed methods study. Developmental Psychology, 57(10), 1563–1581. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001221
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American psychologist, 59(2), 77-92. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77
Evans, G. W., & Wachs, T. D. (2010). Chaos and its influence on children’s development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 6(2-3), 66-80.
Eyimaya, A. O., & Irmak, A. Y. (2021). Relationship between parenting practices and children's screen time during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Turkey. Journal of pediatric nursing, 56, 24-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2020.10.002
Fiese, B. H., & Winter, M. A. (2010). The dynamics of family chaos and its relation to children's socioemotional well-being. In G. W. Evans & T. D. Wachs (Eds.), Chaos and its influence on children's development: An ecological perspective (pp. 49–66). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12057-004
Findley, E., LaBrenz, C. A., Childress, S., Vásquez-Schut, G., & Bowman, K. (2022). ‘I'm not perfect’: Navigating screen time among parents of young children during COVID-19. Child: Care, Health, and Development, 48(6), 1094– 1102. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.13038
Fontanesi, L., Marchetti, D., Mazza, C., Di Giandomenico, S., Roma, P., & Verrocchio, M. C. (2020). The effect of the COVID-19 lockdown on parents: A call to adopt urgent measures. Psychological trauma: theory, research, practice, and policy, 12(S1), S79-S81. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000672
Foster, M. A., Lambert, R., Abbott-Shim, M., McCarty, F., & Franze, S. (2005). A model of home learning environment and social risk factors in relation to children’s emergent literacy and social outcomes. Early childhood research quarterly, 20(1), 13-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2005.01.006
Gadassi Polack, R., Sened, H., Aubé, S., Zhang, A., Joormann, J., & Kober, H. (2021). Connections during crisis: Adolescents’ social dynamics and mental health during COVID-19. Developmental Psychology, 57(10), 1633–1647. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001211
Gershoff, E. T., Aber, J. L., Raver, C. C., & Lennon, M. C. (2007). Income is not enough: Incorporating material hardship into models of income associations with parenting and child development. Child development, 78(1), 70-95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00986.x
Giannotti, M., Mazzoni, N., Bentenuto, A., Venuti, P., & de Falco, S. (2022). Family adjustment to COVID‐19 lockdown in Italy: Parental stress, coparenting, and child externalizing behavior. Family Process, 61(2), 745-763. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12686
Goodwin, R., Hou, W. K., Sun, S., & Ben-Ezra, M. (2020). Quarantine, distress, and interpersonal relationships during COVID-19. General psychiatry, 33(6), e100385. https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2020-100385
Griffith, A. K., Bedard, K. E., Eaton, A., Ackerlund Brandt, J. A., & Jha, P. (2022). Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Parental Burnout and Parenting Practices: Analyses Using a Retrospective Pretest. Chronic Stress, 6. https://doi.org/10.1177/24705470221114059
Guan, H., Okely, A. D., Aguilar-Farias, N., del Pozo Cruz, B., Draper, C. E., El Hamdouchi, A., Florindo, A., Jáuregui, A., Katzmarzyk, P.T., Kontsevaya, A., Löf, M., Park, W., Reilly, J.J., Sharma, D., Tremblay, M.S., Veldman, S.L. (2020). Promoting healthy movement behaviours among children during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 4(6), 416-418. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30131-0
Günther‐Bel, C., Vilaregut, A., Carratala, E., Torras‐Garat, S., & Pérez‐Testor, C. (2020). A mixed‐method study of individual, couple, and parental functioning during the state‐regulated COVID‐19 lockdown in Spain. Family process, 59(3), 1060-1079. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12585
Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L. (2013). The impact of parenting stress: A meta-analysis of studies comparing the experience of parenting stress in parents of children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 43(3), 629-642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1604-y
Herbert, J. S., Mitchell, A., Brentnall, S. J., & Bird, A. L. (2020). Identifying rewards over difficulties buffers the impact of time in COVID-19 lockdown for parents in Australia. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 606507. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.606507
Jago, R., Wood, L., Zahra, J., Thompson, J.L., & Sebire, S.J. (2015). Parental control, nurturance, self-efficacy, and screen viewing among 5- to 6-year-old children: a cross-sectional mediation analysis to inform potential behavior change strategies. Child Obesity, 11(2):139–47. doi: 10.1089/chi.2014.0110
Jansen, E., Thapaliya, G., Aghababian, A., Sadler, J., Smith, K., & Carnell, S. (2021). Parental stress, food parenting practices and child snack intake during the COVID-19 pandemic. Appetite, 161, 105119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2021.105119
Kelly, Y., Sacker, A., Del Bono, E., Francesconi, M., & Marmot, M. (2011). What role for the home learning environment and parenting in reducing the socioeconomic gradient in child development? Findings from the Millennium Cohort Study. Archives of disease in childhood, 96(9), 832-837. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2010.195917
Kennedy, P (1979). A Guide to Econometrics, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Lades, L. K., Laffan, K., Daly, M., & Delaney, L. (2020). Daily emotional well‐being during the covid‐19 pandemic. British Journal of Health Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12450
Lee, S. J., Ward, K. P., Lee, J. Y., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2022). Parental social isolation and child maltreatment risk during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of family violence, 37(5), 813-824. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00244-3
Linver, M. R., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Kohen, D. E. (2002). Family processes as pathways from income to young children’s development. Developmental psychology, 38(5), 719-734. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.719
Määttä, S., Kaukonen, R., Vepsäläinen, H. Lehto, E., Ylönen, A., Ray, C., Erkkola, M. & Roos, E. (2017). The mediating role of the home environment in relation to parental educational level and preschool children’s screen time: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 17, 688. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4694-9
Madigan, S., Browne, D., Racine, N., Mori, C. & Tough, S. (2019). Association between screen time and children’s performance on a developmental screening test. JAMA pediatrics, 173(3), 244-250. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5056
Masarik, A. S., & Conger, R. D. (2017). Stress and child development: A review of the Family Stress Model. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 85-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.05.008
McArthur, B. A., Volkova, V., Tomopoulos, S. & Madigan, S. (2022). Global prevalence of meeting screen time guidelines among children 5 years and younger: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA pediatrics, 176(4), 373-383. DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.6386
McRae, C. S., Overall, N. C., Henderson, A. M., Low, R. S., & Chang, V. T. (2021). Parents’ distress and poor parenting during a COVID-19 lockdown: The buffering effects of partner support and cooperative coparenting. Developmental Psychology, 57(10), 1623-1632. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001207
Mikolajczak, M., Raes, M. E., Avalosse, H., & Roskam, I. (2018). Exhausted parents: Sociodemographic, child-related, parent-related, parenting and family-functioning correlates of parental burnout. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(2), 602-614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0892-4
Mitchell, D. B., & Hauser‐Cram, P. (2010). Early childhood predictors of mothers' and fathers' relationships with adolescents with developmental disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54(6), 487-500. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01268.x
Mollborn, S., Limburg, A., Pace, J., & Fomby, P. (2022). Family socioeconomic status and children's screen time. Journal of Marriage and Family, 84(4), 1129– 1151.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12834
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2004). Young children develop in an environment of relationships. Working Paper No. 1. Retrieved from http://www.developingchild.net
Parke, R. D., Coltrane, S., Duffy, S., Buriel, R., Dennis, J., Powers, J., French, S., & Widaman, K. F. (2004). Economic stress, parenting, and child adjustment in Mexican American and European American families. Child development, 75(6), 1632-1656. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00807.x
Sallis, J.F., Owen, N., & Fisher, E.B. (2008). Ecological models of health behavior. In Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K., & Viswanath, K.E. (Eds.): Health behavior and health education: theory, research, and practice, (pp. 465–482). Jossey-Bass.
Sari, N. P., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Jansen, P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., & Riem, M. M. (2022). Higher levels of harsh parenting during the COVID-19 lockdown in the Netherlands. Child maltreatment, 27(2), 156-162. https://doi.org/10.1177/10775595211024748
Scaramella, L. V., Sohr-Preston, S. L., Callahan, K. L., & Mirabile, S. P. (2008). A test of the Family Stress Model on toddler-aged children’s adjustment among Hurricane Katrina impacted and nonimpacted low-income families. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 530-541. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802148202
Schmidt, S. C., Anedda, B., Burchartz, A., Eichsteller, A., Kolb, S., Nigg, C., Niessner, C., Oriwol, D., Worth, A., & Woll, A. (2020). Physical activity and screen time of children and adolescents before and during the COVID-19 lockdown in Germany: a natural experiment. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78438-4
Scrimin, S., Mastromatteo, L. Y., Hovnanyan, A., Zagni, B., Rubaltelli, E., & Pozzoli, T. (2022). Effects of Socioeconomic Status, Parental Stress, and Family Support on Children’s Physical and Emotional Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 31(8), 2215-2228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02339-5
Seguin, D., Kuenzel, E., Morton, J. B., & Duerden, E. G. (2021). School's out: Parenting stress and screen time use in school-age children during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of affective disorders reports, 6, 100217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100217
Shonkoff J.P. (2009). Investment in early childhood development lays the foundation for a prosperous and sustainable society. In: Tremblay, R.E., Boivin, M., & Peters, R.De V. (Eds.) Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development (pp 1-5), Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development and Strategic Knowledge Cluster on Early Child Development. Available at: http://www.childencyclopedia.com/documents/ShonkoffANGxp.pdf.
Shonkoff, J. P. (2003). From neurons to neighborhoods: old and new challenges for developmental and behavioral pediatrics. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 24(1), 70-76. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200302000-00014
Skinner, A. T., Godwin, J., Alampay, L. P., Lansford, J. E., Bacchini, D., Bornstein, M. H., ... & Yotanyamaneewong, S. (2021). Parent–adolescent relationship quality as a moderator of links between COVID-19 disruption and reported changes in mothers’ and young adults’ adjustment in five countries. Developmental Psychology, 57(10), 1648-1666. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001236
Spinelli, M., Lionetti, F., Pastore, M., & Fasolo, M. (2020). Parents' stress and children's psychological problems in families facing the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 1713. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01713
Stienwandt, S., Cameron, E., Soderstrom, M., Casar, M., Le, C., & Roos1, L. (2022) Family factors associated with hands-on play and screen time during the Covid-19 pandemic. Child Youth Care Forum 51, 1091–1115. DOI: 10.1007/s10566-021-09668-4
Survey, R. (2021, December 15). A Hardship Chain Reaction - RAPID Survey - Medium. Medium. https://medium.com/rapid-ec-project/a-hardship-chain-reaction-3c3f3577b30
Ten Velde, G., Lubrecht, J., Arayess, L., van Loo, C., Hesselink, M., Reijnders, D., & Vreugdenhil, A. (2021). Physical activity behaviour and screen time in Dutch children during the COVID‐19 pandemic: Pre‐, during‐and post‐school closures. Pediatric Obesity, 16(9), e12779. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijpo.12779
Titis, E. (2022). Parental Perspectives of the Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on Food-Related Behaviors: Systematic Review. Foods, 11(18), 2851. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11182851
Treviño, E., Miranda, C., Hernández, M., & Villalobos, C. (2021). Socioeconomic status, parental involvement, and implications for subjective well-being during the global pandemic of Covid-19. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 6). Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.762780
Tripp, G., Schaughency, E. A., Langlands, R., & Mouat, K. (2007). Family interactions in children with and without ADHD. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16(3), 385-400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9093-2
van den Heuvel, M. I., Vacaru, S. V., Boekhorst, M. G., Cloin, M., van Bakel, H., Riem, M. M., de Weerth, C., & Beijers, R. (2022). Parents of young infants report poor mental health and more insensitive parenting during the first Covid-19 lockdown. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 22(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-022-04618-x
Van Lancker, W., & Parolin, Z. (2020). COVID-19, school closures, and child poverty: a social crisis in the making. The Lancet Public Health, 5(5), e243-e244. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30084-0
Videnović, M., Rajić, M., Krstić, K. & Stepanović Ilić, I. (2021). Izazovi roditeljstva tokom vanrednog stanja u Srbiji. In V.Džinović & T.Nikitović (Eds.) Kvalitativna istraživanja kroz discipline i kontekste: osmišljavanje sličnosti i razlika, (pp. 114-117). Belgrade: Institute for Educational Research
Wachs, T. D., & Corapci, F. (2003). Environmental chaos, development and parenting across cultures. Social and cognitive development in the context of individual, social, and cultural processes, 1, 54-83. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203380369
Whittle, S., Bray, K., Lin, S., & Schwartz, O. (2020). Parenting and child and adolescent mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Preprint. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ag2r7
Wong, J. Y. H., Wai, A. K. C., Wang, M. P., Lee, J. P., Li, M., Kwok, J. Y. Y., Wong, C. K. H., & Choi, A. L. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on child maltreatment: Income instability and parenting issues. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(4), 1501. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041501
World Health Organization (2018). Nurturing care for early childhood development: a framework for helping children survive and thrive to transform health and human potential. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272603/9789241514064-eng.pdf
World Health Organization (2020). Improving Early Childhood Development: WHO Guidelines. ISBN 978-92-4-000209-8 https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/97892400020986
Woźniak‐Prus, M., Gambin, M., Sękowski, M., Cudo, A., Pisula, E., Kiepura‐Nawrocka, E., Boruszak-Kiziukiewicz, J. & Kmita, G. (2023). Positive experiences in the parent–child relationship during the COVID‐19 lockdown in Poland: The role of emotion regulation, empathy, parenting self‐efficacy, and social support. Family Process, e12856. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/famp.12856
Wu, Q., & Xu, Y. (2020). Parenting stress and risk of child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic: A family stress theory-informed perspective. Developmental Child Welfare, 2(3), 180-196. https://doi.org/10.1177/251610322096793
Yeung, W. J., Linver, M. R., & Brooks–Gunn, J. (2002). How money matters for young children’ s development: Parental investment and family processes. Child development, 73(6), 1861-1879. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.t01-1-00511
Yıldırım, M., & Çiçek, İ. (2021). Optimism and pessimism mediate the association between parental coronavirus anxiety and depression among healthcare professionals in the era of COVID-19. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 1-9 https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2021.1966702
Zhang, Y., Zhan, N., Zou, J., Xie, D., Liu, M., & Geng, F. (2022). The transmission of psychological distress and lifestyles from parents to children during COVID-19. Journal of Affective Disorders, 303, 74-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.02.007
Authors retain the copyright of the published papers and grant to the publisher the nonexclusive right to publish the article, to be cited as its original publisher in case of re-use, and to distribute it in all forms and media. The published articles will be distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 4.0 International license (CC BY-SA). It is allowed to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format, and remix, transform and build upon it for any purpose, even commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given to the original
author(s), a link to the license is provided, it is indicated if changes were made and the new work is distributed under the same license as the original. Authors are permitted to deposit the author’s publisher’s version (PDF) of their work in an institutional repository, subject-based repository, author’s personal website (including social networking sites, such as ResearchGate, Academia.edu, etc.), and/or departmental website at any time after publication, with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.