TOWARDS ENDURANCE IN SPORT
Abstract
Cardiorespiratory endurance, or aerobic endurance, is the ability of the whole body to sustain prolonged exercise involving relatively large muscle groups. Muscle endurance was defined as the ability of a muscle group to execute repeated contractions over a period of time sufficient to cause muscular fatigue, or to maintain a specific percentage of the maximum voluntary contraction for a prolonged period of time. Each plays its unique role in sport activities and each has its special importance in various athletes. Cardiorespiratory endurance is thought to be the most important component of physical fitness. Low endurance capacity leads to exhaustion, even in sports and activities characterized by low dynamics. The combination of spiroergometric testing (with appropriate testing protocols) and measurements of lactate thresholds is believed to be a gold standard in the assessment of cardiorespiratory endurance. The obtained parameters are then used to define the training objectives and preparation of a precise training plan and program, as well as for subsequent training effect evaluation. Muscular endurance is specific for each group of muscles, type, and velocity of contraction; on account of that, there is not any universal assessment of muscular endurance of the whole body. The methods of isokinetic and isoinertial dynamometry are used to assess muscular endurance, as well as numerous field tests. Understanding and monitoring of endurance in athletes enables the preparation and correction of individual areas of training workload in appropriate cycles of the preparation period during pre-competition and competition seasons. The achievement and maintenance of optimal fitness should be regarded as a dynamic concept, requiring continual monitoring aided by modern methods of functional diagnosis.
References
Wilmore JH, Costill DL, Kenney LW. Physiology of sport and exercise. 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008.
Humphries RB, Dugan E, Doyle T. Muscular Fitness. In American College of Sports Medicine, eds. ACSM's Resource Manual for Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott William & Wilkins, 2006: 206-24.
Radovanovic D, Ponorac N, Ignjatovic A, Stojiljkovic N, Popovic T, Rakovic A. Specific alterations of physiological parameters in competitive race walkers. Acta Physiol Hung 2011; 98(4): 448–54.
Radovanovic D, Bratic M, Nurkic M, Cvetkovic T, Ignjatovic A, Aleksandrovic M. Oxidative stress biomarker response to concurrent strength and endurance training. Gen Physiol Biophys 2009; S28: 205–11.
McGuire DK, Levine BD, Williamson JW, et al. A 30-year follow-up of the Dallas Bed Rest and Training study II. Effect of age on cardiovascular adaptation to exercise training. Circulation 2001; 104(12): 1358–66.
Levy WC, Cerqueira MD, Abrass IB, Schwartz RS, Stratton JR. Endurance exercise training augments diastolic filling at rest and during exercise in healthy young and older men. Circulation 1993; 88(1): 116–26.
Timmons JA. Variability in training-induced skeletal muscle adaptation. J Appl Physiol 2011; 110: 846–53.
Yeo WK, Carey AL, Burke L, Spriet LL, Hawley JA. Fat adaptation in well-trained athletes: effects on cell metabolism. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2011; 36(1): 12–22.
Bassett DR, Howley ET. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 70–84.
Coyle EF. Integration of the physiological factors determining endurance performance ability. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1995; 23: 25–63.
Radovanovic D, Bratic M, Nurkic M, Stankovic N. Recovery of dynamic lung function in elite judoists after short-term high intensity exercise. Arch Budo 2011; 7(1): 21–26.
di Prampero PE (2003). Factors limiting maximal performance in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 90: 420–9.
Wagner PD. A theoretical analysis of factors determining ˙VO2max at sea level and altitude. Respir Physiol 1996; 106: 329–43.
Barstow TJ, Casaburi R, Wasserman K. O2 uptake kinetics and the O2 deficit as related to exercise intensity and blood lactate. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75(2): 755–62.
Faude O, Kindermann T, Meye T. Lactate threshold concepts: how valid are they? Sport Med 2009; 39(6): 469–90.
Daniels JT. A physiologist’s view of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1985; 17(3): 332–8.
Djordjevic D, Cubrilo D, Puzovic V, et al. (2012). Changes in athlete’s redox state induced by habitual and unaccustomed exercise. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2012; doi:10.1155/2012/805850
Radovanovic D, Aleksandrovic M, Stojiljkovic N, Ignjatovic A, Popovic T, Marinkovic M. Influence of physical training on cardiorespiratory endurance in preadolescent age. Acta Med Mediane 2009; 48(1): 37–40.
Verstappen FT, Huppertz RM, Snoeckx LH (1982). Effect of training specificity on maximal treadmill and bicycle ergometer exercise. Int J Sports Med 3(1): 43–6.
Pollock ML, Bohannon RL, Cooper KH, et al. Comparative analysis of four protocols for maximal treadmill stress testing. Am Heart J 1976; 92(1): 39–46.
Kang J, Chaloupka EC, Mastrangelo MA, Biren GB, Robertson RJ. Physiological comparisons among three maximal treadmill exercise protocols in trained and untrained individuals. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 84(4): 291–5.
Pereira MA, Freedson PS. Intraindividual variation of running economy in highly trained and moderately trained males. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18(2): 118–24.
Riley PO, Dicharry J, Franz J, et al. A kinematics and kinetic comparison of overground and treadmill running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40(6): 1093–110.
Radovanovic D, Okicic T, Ignjatovic A. Physiological profile of elite women water polo players. Acta Med Medianae 2007; 46(4): 48–51.
Komi PV. Strength and power in sport. 2nd ed. London: Blackwell Science, 2003.
Ignjatovic A, Radovanovic D, Stankovic R, Markovic Z, Kocic J. Influence of resistance training on cardiorespiratory endurance and muscle power and strength in young athletes. Acta Physiol Hung 2011; 98(3): 305–12.
Radovanovic D, Ignjatović A. Physiological basis of force and strength training (In Serbian). Nis: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education University of Nis, 2009.
Osternig LR. Isokinetic dynamometry: implications for muscle testing and rehabilitation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1986; 14: 45–80.
Baltzopoulos V, Brodie DA. Isokinetic dynamometry. Applications and limitations. Sports Med 1989; 8(2):101–16.
Ignjatovic A, Markovic Z, Radovanovic D. Effects of 12-week medicine ball training on muscle strength and power in young female handball players. J Strength Cond Res 2012; 26(8): 2166–73.
Desqorces FD, Berthelot G, Dietrich G, Testa MS. Local muscular endurance and prediction of 1 repetition maximum for bench in 4 athletic populations. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 24(2): 394–400.
Shimano T, Kraemer WJ, Spiering BA, et al. Relationship between the number of repetitions and selected percentages of one repetition maximum in free weight exercises in trained and untrained men. J Strength Cond Res 2006; 20(4): 819–23.